<b>How Albert Einstein (1879-1955) Changed the Way We See the Universe, by Franklin and Betty J. Parker, bfparker@frontiernet.net     Review of Walter Isaacson’s Einstein, <i>His Life and Universe</i>, NY: Simon &amp; Schuster, 2007, and related sources, given March 17, 2008, Uplands Retirement Village. Pleasant Hill, TN.</b>

<b>This is the true story of an independent loner, largely self-taught, a high school dropout who failed his technical college entrance exam, entered that technical college by the skin of his teeth, irritated his professors, barely graduated, and—by not bowing to authority—had to live hand-to-mouth on low pay substitute teaching for 18 months.  In 1905, while a lowly Swiss Patent Office clerk, he published 5 papers which changed the way we see the universe.  How did he do it?</b>

<b>We are not scientists.  What follows is our laypersons’ understanding of journalist-author Walter Isaacson’s 2007 bestseller Einstein, <i>His Life and Universe</i>.1  Author Isaacson, Time magazine’s managing editor when his staff voted Einstein the most important person of the 20th century,2 now heads the Aspen Institute, a think tank for executives, Washington, D.C.3</b>

<b>Recently opened Albert Einstein archives account for Isaacson’s Einstein biography, plus another biography by German science writer Jürgen Neffe.4   Over 500 Einstein biographies exist.  An Einstein film based on Isaacson’s book is planned plus other Einstein film projects.5</b>

<b>This interest in Einstein, we think, comes from his newly opened papers.  While known as a scientific genius, few people know of his troubled early life; fewer know how he changed the way we see the universe.</b>

<b>Albert’s father Hermann Einstein (1847-1902), at age 29 in Bavaria, Germany, married Pauline Koch (1858-1920), age 18 in 1876, both non-observing Jews. Pauline, his mother, a prosperous grain dealer’s daughter, was cultured, well read, a pianist and music lover. Hermann, whom she dominated, was generous, thoughtful, a devoted husband and father who failed in business.6</b>

<b>Albert Einstein was born March 14, 1879, in Ulm, near Stuttgart, Germany; born into a world where Isaac Newton’s (1642-1727) laws of motion and gravity had satisfactorily explained earth’s place in the universe over 200 years earlier.  No one then dreamed that anyone, let alone Albert Einstein, would add significantly to Newton’s laws.</b>

<b>Albert grew up among electric generators and motors. His uncle, engineer-inventor Jakob Einstein (1850-1912), introduced electricity into southern German towns, as Thomas Edison (1847-1931) did in New York City.7  Pauline Einstein, with a Koch family loan, encouraged husband Hermann’s partnership with Jakob. After Albert’s birth, the Einsteins moved (1880) from Ulm to Munich for better business opportunity.</b>

<b>Albert’s big head at birth and his being a late talker evoked fear that he was abnormal. Albert later told a biographer, “My parents were worried because I started to talk comparatively late, and they consulted a doctor….”8</b>

<b>When Albert was 2 his only sibling sister was born, Marie, called “Maja” Einstein (1881-1951).  She later described him as quiet and introspective.9</b>

<b>When Albert was 4 and ill, his father gave him a compass to play with. Albert later wrote: “When I saw…[its needle always point north, no matter how I turned it], the fact that it behaved in such a fixed way changed my understanding of the world. Until then, I thought that one thing had to touch another to make it move…. I realized that something deeply hidden had to lie behind things.” 10 These thoughts were an early hint of his lifelong search for unity in nature.</b>

<b>Albert was kept at home until age 7, taught the 3 Rs by a tutor, then enrolled in a nearby Catholic primary school, ages 7 to 9, 1885-88. He did well academically, received Catholic religious instruction in school plus state-required private Jewish instruction from a relative at home.</b>

<b>Taken as a little boy to watch a Prussian military parade, he cried out in horror: “I don’t want to be [regimented like]…those poor people.”11  He disliked school discipline and rote learning, especially in secondary school at Munich’s Luitpold Gymnasium, 6 years, ages 9 to 15 (1888-94).</b>

<b>Good in science and math, less interested in other subjects, he irritated some teachers by questioning their knowledge.  Asked about Albert’s potential, his headmaster said: “…he’ll never make a success.” Told by a teacher that he was not welcome in class, Albert said he had done nothing wrong.  His teacher said: “Yes, …but you sit there in the back row and smile and your mere presence here spoils the respect of the class for me.”  Albert later called his primary teachers sergeants, his gymnasium teachers lieutenants.12</b>

<b>Uncle Jakob taught him algebra. Albert mastered calculus by age 12. Reading math and science books reinforced his appreciation of orderliness in nature. He later said: “As a boy of 12, I was thrilled to see that it was possible to find out truth by reasoning alone, without the help of any outside experience.”13</b>

<b>Piano and violin lessons, urged by his mother, made him a lifelong violinist. He saw harmony and unity in music, science, and nature.</b>

<b>Max Talmey (1867-1941), age 21, a poor Polish Jewish medical student, invited to Thursday night dinners from 1889 for a few years, shared with Albert, from the age of 10, table talk on science, math, and philosophy.14</b>

<b>Talmey gave Albert a popular natural science book series describing current scientific experiments.15  The books were full of imaginative, creative what-ifs, leading Albert at 16 to ask: “What if I could ride alongside a beam of light?”  This question eventually led to his 1905 and 1915 theories of relativity.</b>

<b>Asked years later (1921) what he thought of those science books, Albert said: very good books, “[They] exerted a great influence on my whole development.”16</b>

<b>Talmey, spurring Albert’s curiosity at an impressionable age, remarked in his 1932 book about young Albert’s “exceptional intelligence [which enabled him to discuss with me, a college graduate,] subjects far beyond the comprehension of so young a child.”17</b>

<b>Albert, religious before age 10, became a doubter from age 12.  He read with Talmey philosopher Immanuel Kant’s (1724-1804) <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>, discussed Kant’s belief that the universe can be understood by thought alone. Albert read and agreed with philosopher Benedict Spinoza (1632-77) that God works through nature’s orderliness.</b>

<b>Business failure caused the Einsteins to move to Italy near their northern Italy partner firm in Milan, then to nearby Pavia. Albert at 15 needed 3 more years to complete secondary school. His parents decided he should remain in Munich where an Einstein relative would look after him until he graduated.</b>

<b>Lonely, unhappy, Albert looked for a way out of the Munich Gymnasium, which he disliked, knowing some teachers disliked him. He also dreaded German compulsory military service at age 17, two years ahead.</b>

<b>Albert, alone, age 15, asked the family physician for a letter stating that because of isolation from his family he was suffering from nervous exhaustion and needed the bracing air of northern Italy. From his math teacher he got a letter listing his high math scores.</b>

<b>This high school dropout took a train to Pavia, Italy,18 arrived unexpectedly at his parents’ home, and told them why he had dropped out of school and how he planned to continue his education.</b>

<b>He would study on his own, take the entrance exam in autumn 1895 to enter the highly regarded Polytechnic College in Zurich, Switzerland,19 which did not require secondary school graduation if an applicant passed its high entrance exams.  He also said: I want to renounce my German citizenship.</b>

<b>His concerned father prudently delayed submitting renunciation of German citizenship forms until Albert in Switzerland had applied for Swiss citizenship.  Albert was stateless  from 1896 until granted Swiss citizenship in 1901.</b>

<b>Helping in the family’s Pavia shop with its electric lighting equipment, Albert impressed Uncle Jakob by quickly solving electrical problems. Uncle Jakob assured everyone: “You will hear from him yet.”</b>

<b>In spring and summer 1895 Albert hiked the Alps and Apennines from Pavia to Genoa to see his maternal Uncle Julius Koch. He visited art and other culture centers, delighted at Italian friendliness, so unlike the stern Germans.</b>

<b>Reading physics textbooks helped him prepare for the Zurich Polytechnic entrance exams. He would be 16 when he took the Polytechnic entrance test intended for age 18 and older. A family friend got him a waiver of the age requirement.20</b>

<b>Albert passed the Zurich Polytechnic test in math and science but failed other subjects. Polytechnic Director Albin Herzog (1852-1909) suggested that Albert take a final secondary school year of guided study at nearby Aarau high school, whose graduates were automatically admitted to the Zurich Polytechnic.21</b>

<b>Aarau Cantonal High School, 25 miles west of Zurich, influenced by progressive Swiss educator Johann Pestalozzi (1746-1827),22 was teacher-friendly, student-centered, perfect for Albert.</b>

<b>He later told a friend: “In Aarau I made my first rather childish experiments in thinking that had a direct bearing on the Special [Relativity] Theory. If a person could run after a light wave with the same speed as light, you would have a wave arrangement which could be completely independent of time….”23</b>

<b>He boarded with principal Jost and Rosa Winteler.  Marie, one of their 7 children, was Albert’s first girl friend; she 18, he 16.24</b>

<b>With the Wintelers, Albert developed a quick wit and debonair jesting manner. When not in class or studying or hiking or playing violin duets or flirting with Marie Winteler, he joined the Winteler family’s liberal conversation.25</b>

<b>Graduating from the Aarau Cantonal High School with the second highest grades except in French, he wrote of his future plans as follows:</b>

<b>”…I will enroll in the Zurich Polytechnic….stay…four years [1896-1900] to study mathematics and physics…. I will be a teacher …of these sciences…. ¶[I have a] talent for abstract…thinking…. I am attracted by…the profession of science.”26</b>

<b>Albert enrolled, Oct. 29, 1896, in Zurich Polytechnic’s department preparing secondary school math and physics teachers, headed by Prof. Heinrich Weber (1842-1913).27</b>

<b>Romance came at Zurich Polytechnic with Mileva Maric (1875-1948), the only woman student in this department, from Novi Sad, Serbia, daughter of a wealthy landowner and judge. 28</b>

<b>Mileva, bright in math and physics, determined to succeed, had won top honors in an all-male Serbian scientific school. She at 21, Albert at 17, casual friends, hiked together in the summer of 1897. Albert admired Mileva for her science interest and for being, like himself, a rebel, outsider, survivor.29</b>

<b>Friendship ripened into love. Mileva Maric became, in Walter Isaacson’s words: “Einstein’s muse, partner, lover, wife [16 years, 1903-19]…and [finally] antagonist.”30</b>

<b>In his last two years at Zurich Polytechnic Albert skipped Prof. Heinrich Weber’s physics lectures, disappointed at Weber’s neglecting contemporary physics. Albert was enthralled with James Clerk Maxwell’s (1831-79) books on <i>Electricity and Magnetism</i>, 1873; and <i>Matter and Motion</i>, 1876.</b>

<b>Albert irritated his major professor by addressing him as “Herr Weber” instead of the more respectful “Herr Professor.” Prof. Weber gave Albert a dressing down (1898-99): “You’re a clever boy. But you have one great fault: you’ll never let yourself be told anything.”31</b>

<b>Albert’s other physics professor, Jean Pernet (1845-1902) asked his assistant: “What do you make of Einstein? He always does something different from what I have ordered.” The assistant replied, “He does indeed, Herr Professor, but his solutions are right and the methods he uses are of great interest.”32</b>

<b>Albert focused on physics, less on math. He later regretted skipping math Prof. Hermann Minkowski’s (1864-1909) advanced math lectures.33</b>

<b>Studying what interested him, Albert risked failing final exams. Friends tutored him: Mileva Maric, engineering student Micheleangelo Besso,34 and math major Marcel Grossmann’s (1878-1936) who shared his detailed lecture notes.  Grossmann understood Albert’s independent spirit, recognized Albert’s talents, and told his parents, “This Einstein will one day be a great man.”35</b>

<b>Albert barely passed his final exams. Mileva Maric failed but planned to try again.36   Financial aid from Albert’s family stopped on graduation. His fellow graduates all received coveted teaching jobs or research assistantships. Albert sent out many applications.  No one answered.</b>

<b>Albert complained that Prof. Heinrich Weber’s bad references prevented his getting a job. Mileva attributed his joblessness to anti-Semitism and to his rebel attitude: “You know my sweetheart has a sharp tongue.”37</b>

<b>Today we are shocked that Einstein, an acknowledged genius, could not find an academic job after college graduation. For 18 months his only income was from short term low pay substitute teaching.</b>

<b>Isaacson described Einstein in this jobless period as: “Einstein the Nobody.” His father Hermann, knowing Albert had twice applied unsuccessfully to one professor for an assistantship, wrote that professor, without telling Albert:</b>

<b>”My son Albert, …22…, unhappy with his present lack of position,…[feels] …that he is a burden on us, people of modest means….¶I have taken the liberty of [asking you] to…write him… a few words of encouragement, so that he might recover his joy in living and working. ¶If…you could secure him an Assistant’s position…my gratitude would know no bounds…. Hermann Einstein.” No reply ever came.38</b>

<b>Opposed to Albert’s romance with Mileva Maric, Albert’s mother thought Mileva unsuitable, older, unhealthy, non-Jewish, a foreigner. During summer 1900 family vacation his mother asked Albert, “What will become of your Dollie now?”39</b>

<b>Albert replied: engagement and marriage. His mother wept.  Still worse, she and Albert’s father sent a jointly signed letter to Mileva Maric’s parents listing reasons against the marriage.</b>

<b>At last came a job possibility.  Albert’s friend Marcel Grossmann told his father of Albert’s joblessness. Grossmann’s father spoke to his friend, Swiss Patent Office Director Friedrich Haller (1844-1936). Haller told Albert to apply when a Patent Office job was posted. On this possibility, Albert moved to Bern, the Swiss capital, where the Patent Office was located.</b>

<b>Albert and Mileva had a romantic interlude at Lake Como on the Swiss-Italian border, spring 1901. Mileva wrote Albert she was pregnant. Albert promised to find a job “no matter how humble…[and despite] my scientific goals and my personal vanity.”40</b>

<b>Albert was with his family the summer of 1901 when Mileva retook her failed Zurich Polytechnic final exams. Three months pregnant, sick, her pregnancy a secret, with Albert’s parents opposed to their marriage, Mileva failed again.  Nor was Albert with her when, home in Serbia, she gave birth to a baby girl Lieserl, early Feb. 1902.41</b>

<b>Albert never saw, his parents never knew, the world never knew about Lieserl until 1986 from newly found Einstein family letters. Why the secrecy?  Speculating from Albert’s then troubled situation–he was the jobless, unconventional, near-bohemian father of an illegitimate child, unable to support a family, whose parents opposed his love mate. If he became publicly tarred as immoral he might not get the Swiss Patent Office job.</b>

<b>Mileva, in Serbia, her family helping, cared for the baby, exchanged anxious love letters with Albert, patiently awaited his hoped for job, his promised marriage. Historians speculate that Mileva’s close friend in Serbia took custody of Lieserl, that Lieserl died of scarlet fever.42</b>

<b>Needing money, awaiting the Patent Office job, Albert in a Bern newspaper advertised: “Private lessons in Mathematics and Physics….. Trial lessons free.” Several local students responded.43</b>

<b>Albert’s lectures to the jokingly named “Olympia Academy” students gave way to freewheeling discussions on physics, philosophy, classic books, over food and drink, on country walks, and on mountain hikes.44</b>

<b>Albert was finally appointed Swiss Patent Office Technical Expert Class 3 Provisional (on trial), June 16, 1902.  Director Friedrich Haller told  him: “When you pick up an application think that everything the inventor says is wrong.”  Be critical, vigilant, question every premise, challenge everything–an approach Albert liked. 45</b>

<b>Soon expert in judging patent applications, Albert rushed through the day’s work, did his own thought experiments, hid his notes when visitors or Director Haller approached. The Patent Office job, Albert later wrote: “…enforced my many-sided thinking and also provided important stimuli to…[my] thought[s on physics].”46</b>

<b>Hermann Einstein, 55, dying in Milan, Italy, Oct. 10, 1902, finally gave Albert permission to marry Mileva Maric. He and Mileva were married Jan. 6, 1903, in a civil ceremony attended only by two “Olympia Academy” friends.</b>

<b>With a steady job, income, marriage, regularity, Albert and Mileva had a son, Hans Albert Einstein, born May 14, 1904.47 Albert also had from 1904 as Patent Office co-worker his close friend Michelangelo Besso.  They shared scientific ideas and constantly discussed how mass (or matter), light, space, and time were related.  Between 1901-04 Albert wrote and published reviews of new physics writings and several so called “practice papers.”</b>

<b>Then, in 1905—about ideas he’d puzzled over for years–Albert published four papers plus his doctoral dissertation in the German physics journal, <i>Annalen der Physik</i>.  In time physicists recognized the originality and importance of these papers.</b>

<b>Of this 1905 “Miracle Year” he later wrote: “A storm broke out in my mind.”</b>

<b>First of Albert’s four 1905 papers was on the photo-electric effect of light, long thought to be a wave. Light, Albert wrote, is both a wave and fast-moving particles. When light particles hit certain metals they cause a mysterious release of electrons from the metals.</b>

<b>This photo-electric effect of light is the basis of many light operated devices: some automatic door openers, compact disks,  CAT scans using x-ray imaging for cancer, etc.</b>

<b>Albert’s photo-electric effect paper also helped establish Quantum Physics, the study of the strange behavior of electrons circling protons inside atoms. This photo-electric effect paper, because it was verifiable and practical, won Albert the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics.48</b>

<b>Albert’s second 1905 paper explained “Brownian Movement,” named after Scottish botanist Robert Brown (1773-1858), who found in 1827 under a microscope that tiny grains of pollen placed in water  moved about irregularly.</b>

<b>Seventy-eight years after Robert  Brown’s discovery, Albert proved that water molecules randomly hitting the pollen grains caused this jittery motion. His paper convinced doubting scientists that molecules and atoms exist, are active, and can be mathematically quantified.49</b>

<b>His third 1905 paper on Special Theory of Relativity, more important, was less understood.  Albert built on the Copernican-Kepler-Galileo finding that everything moves: our earth turns on its axis, revolves around our sun, which revolves with other suns in our Milky Way galaxy, which revolves among a spiral of other galaxies, etc.</b>

<b>Albert built his Special Theory of Relativity on two certainties: 1-the laws of physics are the same everywhere; 2-nothing travels faster than light at 186,000 miles per second.</b>

<b>Albert’s insight was that a movement takes place, an event occurs, each in its own frame of reference, relative to, in relation to, an observer’s place and rate of movement, which is the observer’s frame of reference.  In short: movements, events are relative to an observer.</b>

<b>On Albert’s daily streetcar ride home from work, looking back, he saw Bern’s famous Clock Tower receding.  He thought: if his streetcar heading away from the Clock Tower approached the speed of light, its clock hands would seem to slow down while his own pocket watch ticked normally.</b>

<b>On earth, Albert knew, where the fastest moving thing is a tiny fraction the speed of light’s 186,000 miles per second, Newton’s laws hold firm. Time and space, as Newton believed, do seem separate and fixed. But on a fast moving spaceship, approaching the speed of light, a clock aboard the spaceship (time) slows down.</b>

<b>The faster the spaceship, the more its clock slows down, called Time Dilation. Time Dilation has been proved. In 1971 two identically set atomic clocks, one stationary on the ground, the other jet-flown around the world, when compared, showed that the jet flown clock had slowed down.</b>

<b>To humans inside a speeding spaceship all seems normal. But as it passes a stationary observer, because of the observer’s frame of reference, the observer sees the oncoming spaceship shorter in front and longer in back.</b>

<b>Albert’s findings–startling, revolutionary, strange even to him–took time to be absorbed, argued about, understood, tested, and ultimately accepted by scientists.</b>

<b>Albert’s genius was to think differently, outside common thought, “outside the box.” His younger questioning rebellious skepticism led to these 1905 intuitive grand discoveries.</b>

<b>Albert worked out mathematical proof that Time and Space are not fixed, not separate, but are interwoven as spacetime. To our 3 dimensions of length, width, and height he added a fourth dimension–spacetime.50   The only fixed factor is the speed of light.</b>

<b>Albert’s fourth 1905 paper, a footnote to his third Special Theory of Relativity paper, held that matter and energy are similar and can be converted one into the other. Marie Curie (1867-1934), for example, found in 1902 that uranium from pitch-blend (matter), gave off electronic radiation energy.  Albert independently conceived of this matter-to-energy conversion in his famous formula: E=mc2.</b>

<b>E for Energy equals mass (which is, matter), multiplied by c (c for celeritus, Latin for speed of light), squared.  186,000 miles per second, squared, is so huge a number that if atoms on a pinhead could be split apart, their energy would explode like an atom bomb.51</b>

<b>Biographer Walter Isaacson wrote: “Einstein’s 1905 burst of creativity was astonishing. He had devised a revolutionary quantum theory of light, helped prove the existence of atoms, explained Brownian motion, upended the concept of space and time, and produced what would become science’s best known equation.”52</b>

<b>Albert’s Special Theory of Relativity covered only bodies moving parallel in straight lines at constant speeds.</b>

<b>It would take him 10 more years to find a General Theory of Relativity, backed by math, that explained how and why bodies in space move at varying speeds in curved motion around other bodies.53</b>

<b>Albert, waiting to be recognized, still needing Patent Office income, wrote other scholarly papers and also completed his Ph.D. dissertation for the University of Zurich, summer 1905.54</b>

<b>His application to be a University of Bern lecturer required submitting another original physics paper. This he did allowing him to lecture, unpaid except for student fees, 1908-1909, early mornings, before Patent Office hours, thus to only a few students. 55</b>

<b>The first scholar to inquire about Relativity was the world renowned University of Berlin physicist Max Planck (1858-1947,) who soon added Relativity to his own lectures.56</b>

<b>Planck’s assistant, Max von Laue (1879-1960), sent to Bern to consult Albert, was surprised to find him working as a lowly Patent Office clerk.</b>

<b>Noticed, at last, Albert received job offers. He resigned from the Patent Office July 6, 1909, where his best thinking had been done for 7 years. He became associate professor of physics, University of Zurich, 1909-10. He moved with Mileva, and 5-year old Hans Einstein to Zurich, Oct. 15, 1909, where their second son Eduard was born, July 28, 1910.57</b>

<b>He was full professor at German Speaking Karl-Ferdinand University, Prague, 1911-12.  While in Prague he attended a science conference in Brussels, Belgium, October 1911. At 32, the youngest physicist present, he met for the first time the greatest living physicists of the time, including Marie Curie.58</b>

<b>Albert next was physics professor at Zurich Polytechnic, 1912-1914, his alma mater, then granting Ph.D’s.  Here, luckily,  his friend Marcel Grossmann, head of the Polytechnic’s math department, taught Albert tensor calculus for curved space he needed to prove his 1915 General Theory of Relativity.</b>

<b>Albert’s last European position was at the prestigious University of Berlin, 1914-1933, 19 years, through World War I, Germany’s defeat and economic collapse, and Hitler’s rise to power, which forced Albert’s move to the U.S. in 1933.59</b>

<b>Raising two boys, the younger one, Eduard, a schizophrenic, Mileva’s science interest had waned. She resented Albert’s several extra-marital affairs, was bitter that he took the prestigious Berlin position partly to be near his divorced cousin Elsa Einstein (1876-1936), with whom he had an affair.</b>

<b>Marital friction deepened. Albert wrote out conditions under which he would live with Mileva: “You make sure . . . that I receive my three meals regularly in my room. You are neither to expect intimacy nor to reproach me in any way.”60  They separated. Mileva and the two boys left Berlin July 1914 for Zurich a month before WW I began (Aug. 1, 1914).</b>

<b>To get Mileva to agree to a divorce, Albert promised her and the boys the money from the Nobel Prize in Physics he expected, having been nominated annually since 1910.  The long divorce proceedings ended on Feb. 14, l919.  Albert admitted adultery.</b>

<b>Elsa, Albert’s cousin, divorced,61 lived with her two daughters Lisa and Margot in Berlin, where Albert visited her in 1912, before taking the Berlin job.</b>

<b>Separation and divorce from Mileva, overwork, carelessness about his health, caused Albert to become seriously ill during 1917-19.   Elsa restored his health. They married June 2, 1919. Elsa gave him regularity, protection, and freedom to think and write.</b>

<b>Albert’s first insight into his 1915 General Theory of Relativity came in a thought experiment in 1907 while still at the Patent Office.  His thought was: if a workman fell from a roof, until he hit the ground, he and everything on him would be weightless in free fall. So too would be people in a falling elevator atop a tall building whose holding cable had snapped.</b>

<b>His surprising insight was that moving heavenly bodies, like people and objects in free fall, carry spacetime with them.</b>

<b>His insights, greatly simplified, were: 1-The larger a moving heavenly body is, the more curved spacetime it carries around with it. 2-Newton’s gravity is really curved spacetime. 3-When starlight reaches a large mass like the sun that starlight will be slightly bent by the curved spacetime around the sun’s enormous mass. 4-If he figured the precise arc of light bent around an eclipsed sun, then a photograph of that eclipse would prove the correctness of his General Theory of Relativity.</b>

<b>Helped by tensor calculus taught him by his math friend Marcel Grossmann, Albert published his General Relativity paper, March 20, 1915, revised in 1916.62</b>

<b>In 1917 with WW I raging, Britain’s Royal Astronomer Frank Watson Dyson (1868-1939) planned for Cambridge University astronomer Arthur Stanley Eddington (1882-1944) to head a British team to photograph the sun’s eclipse predicted two years later, on May 29, 1919.63</b>

<b>Two photo team were sent to photograph the eclipse:  one went to Principe, a Portuguese island off West Africa; another photo team went to Sobral, northern Brazil, the two best viewing sites. These photos confirmed Einstein’s predicted arc of light deflection.  Einstein’s General Relativity Theory was thus proved true.</b>

<b>England’s greatest scientists flocked to the Great Room, Burlington House, Piccadilly, London, Nov. 6, 1919.   Dyson reported.  Eddington reported.  Others commented.  Royal Society Pres. J. J. Thomson, concluding, proclaimed:  …”[this] is…one of the highest achievements of human thought.”64</b>

<b>London Times, Nov. 7, 1919, headline: “Revolution in Science. New Theory of the Universe. Newton’s Ideas Overthrown.” Similar headlines, with Einstein’s photo, emblazoned newspapers worldwide and helped make Einstein an instant hero.65</b>

<b>Did this hero worship come from public relief that long, bloody, devastating WW I was over? that God, morality, good will, peace on earth—which many thought had died in the trenches–were restored?</b>

<b>With peace came news that Einstein, an anti-war German-born Swiss citizen, had discovered something new about the universe. His discovery was confirmed by photos taken by an English Quaker pacifist scientist.  WW I hatred was replaced by peaceful international scientific cooperation–temporarily.</b>

<b>Albert, amazed at the adulation, called the newspaper accounts “amusing feats of imagination.” The war-weary public, wanting someone to idolize and lionize, embraced this stunned, sad-eyed, long-haired, absent-minded professor. What Relativity meant did not matter.  His opinion was asked about everything under the sun. His disarming, witty replies, widely reported, brought smiles.  Elsa Einstein loved the attention.</b>

<b>The Nobel Prize in Physics committee, embarrassed for by-passing Einstein since 1910, awarded Albert its 1921 prize, not for controversial Relativity, but for his practical 1905 photo-electric effect paper. The prize money, $32,000, went as promised to his  ex-wife Mileva Maric and their sons.66</b>

<b>Albert never understood the public adulation but he used it as a platform for his pacifist views. He publicly criticized fellow scientists who worked for Germany’s war effort in making poison gas and flame throwers.</b>

<b>He stated publicly that if even 2% of military draftees refused to serve, all war machines would grind to a halt.  Anti-Semitism, his own pacifism, and his public opposition to the early Nazis made him a marked man.</b>

<b>His books were burned as “Jewish science.” A price was put on his head dead or alive.  His Berlin bank funds were blocked. His country home at Carputh near Berlin was ransacked. He fled to the U.S., worked at the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, N.J., 22 years, from 1933 to his death.</b>

<b>Hitler’s atrocities modified Einstein’s pacifism.  Other refugee European physicists told Einstein that Nazi scientists were close to splitting the uranium atom to make a devastating bomb.   His Aug. 2, 1939, letter warning Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt of the catastrophic danger, along with pressure from British intelligence, led to the Manhattan Project and the atomic bomb.67</b>

<b>Learning of the atom bombs dropped on Japan to end WWII, Einstein regretted having been involved.  Still seeking a unified theory to explain everything, still searching to know the mind of God, still scribbling formulas on paper, he died of a burst stomach aneurysm in Princeton Hospital, N.J., April 18, 1955, age 76.68</b>

<b>Why Einstein? What spurred his early efforts to 1905 to explain the mysteries of the universe, nearly alone, without academic connections, or collegues’ help, or library access?</b>

<b>Curiosity was his spur: stick-to-itiveness, self-confidence, an insatiable drive to discover how God works through nature.  Life’s hurts faded in comparison: teachers who said he would never amount to much; Zurich Polytechnic professors who put him down; prejudice which kept him jobless, illegitimate child, failed marriage, his own shortcomings as husband and father.</b>

<b>Galileo taught him that all planets and objects move, every event occurs, relative to an observer’s frame of reference.</b>

<b>Isaac Newton’s law of gravity taught him that stars and planets, according to size/mass, exert a gravitational “pull” on each other.</b>

<b>Michael Faraday’s (1791-1867) electromagnetism, on which his father and uncle’s electric business was based, led Albert to Scottish James Clerk Maxwell.</b>

<b>Maxwell’s mathematical proof that light at 186,000 miles per second is the visible form of Faraday’s electromagnetism, sparked his probing thought experiments.</b>

<b>A workman falling off a roof, a falling elevator full of people, all weightless in free fall, like heavenly planets, carry spacetime with them.  Spacetime is Newton’s gravity. Spacetime bends light around a large mass.</b>

<b>Einstein’s E=mc2 founded modern cosmology.  It encouraged scientists to search for the origin of the universe, the beginning of spacetime in the Big Bang 13.7 billion year ago, filling our expanding universe, bursting constantly from our sun and other suns in other  galaxies.</b>

<b>Einstein’s E=mc2 gave us nuclear energy for industry and electricity. Nuclear power lights 80% of France, including its Eiffel Tower.</b>

<b>Einstein’s genius, Walter Isaacson concluded, was his imagination guided by faith in nature’s unity.</b>

<b>Young Einstein rebelled against the status quo to give us a new view of the universe.  Old Einstein resisted Quantum Physics, which he helped found, because its followers denied certainty in nature, believed probabilities are all we can rely on.  Einstein said, Nature’s God, ” does not play dice.”</b>

<b>How did he do it—usher in our modern age; this rare, bright, nonconformist rebel?  He was the right person at the right place at the right time.  Will we ever see his like again?</b>

<b>We enjoyed doing this review.  Thank you for being here.
</b>

<b>References Below Include: 1-Books Read by Authors, 2-Footnotes (with added material omitted above due to time limitation) , 3-Best Albert Einstein Internet Sources, 4-About the Authors:</b>

<b>Books Examine by Authors</b>

<b>1. Aczel, Amir D. S. <i>God’s Equation: Einstein, Relativity, and the Expanding Universe</i>. NY: Four Walls Eight Windows, 1999.</b>

<b>2. Bodanis, David. <i>E=mc2: A Biography of the World’s Most Famous Equation</i>. NY: Walker &amp; Co., 2000.</b>

<b>3. Caliprice, Alice, Editor. <i>Dear Professor Einstein</i>. Foreword by Evelyn Einstein.  Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2002. Children’s letters to and from Einstein.</b>

<b>4. Clark, Ronald W. <i>Einstein: The Life and Times</i>. NY: World Publishing Co., 1956.</b>

<b>5. Cwiklik, Robert. <i>Albert Einstein and the Theory of Relativity</i>. Hauppauge, NY: Barron’s Educational Series. Profiles in science for young people, ages 12-13.</b>

<b>6. Hoffman, Banesh, with Collaboration of Helen Dukas. <i>Albert Einstein, Creator and Rebel</i>. NY: Viking Press, 1972.</b>

<b>7. Ireland, Karin. <i>Albert Einstein</i>. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Silver Burdett Press, 1989.</b>

<b>8. Isaacson, Walter. <i>Einstein, His Life and Universe</i>. NY: Simon &amp; Schuster, 2007.</b>

<b>9. Lakin, Patricia. <i>Albert Einstein, Genius of the Twentieth Century</i>. NY: Aladdin, 2005.</b>

<b>10. Overbye, Dennis. <i>Einstein in Love: A Scientific Romance.</i> NY: Penguin Books, 2000.</b>

<b>11. Parker, Barry. <i>Einstein’s Brainchild, Relativity Made Easy</i>. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2000.</b>

<b>12. Schwartz, Joseph and Michael McGinness. <i>E=MC2: Einstein for Beginners</i>. NY: Pantheon Books, 1979.</b>

<b>13. White, Michael and John Gribbin. Einstein, <i>A Life in Science</i></b><b>. NY: Penguin, 1993.</b>

<b>14. Zackheim, Michele. <i>Einstein’s Daughter, The Search for Lieserl</i>. NY: Penguin Putnam, 1999.</b>

<b>Footnotes</b>

<b>1. Authors Franklin and Betty J. Parker wanted to review this Einstein biography because Einstein’s theories were central in Stephen Hawking, <i>A Briefer History of Time</i>, 2005, which we reviewed, April 18, 2007. In that review we realized that although Einstein is an acknowledged science genius, few know of his troubled life, even fewer know how he changed our view of the universe. Our aim is to clarify his life and his enormous contributions. Our Hawking review can be accessed at:</b>

<b>http://www.toadfire.com/blog_full.jsp?blogID=3469
or:    http://bfparker.blog.co.uk/2007/01/15/universe_big_bang_black_holes_dialogue_o~1556047  or:http://bfparker.blog.co.uk/2007/01/15/universe_big_bang_black_holes_dialogue_o%7E1556047</b>

<b>Isaacson’s Acknowledgement credits experts who checked his book’s accuracy, including several editors of Einstein’s papers and some 10 prominent physicists and science historians. See Isaacson, pp. xv-xviii,</b>

<b>2. Interviewed on Dec. 7, 1999, Isaacson told why the then editors, previous editors, and consulting historians chose Albert Einstein as Person of the 20th Century. For Isaacson’s discussion of Einstein’s importance and Einstein’s views on God, see:
http://www.time.com/time/community/transcripts/1999/122799isaacson.html</b>

<b>3. For description of Aspen Institute, Washington, D.C., leadership discussion group with world-wide connections, see:
http://www.aspeninstitute.org/site/c.huLWjeMRKpH/b.4939471</b>

<b>4. For book reviews of Jürgen Neffe, <i>Einstein: A Biography</i>. NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2007 (with some comparisons to Walter Isaacson’s 2007 Einstein biography), see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=J%C3%BCrgen+Neffe%2C+Einstein%2C+reviews&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
&lt;http://www.google.com/search?q=J%C3%BCrgen+Neffe%2C+Einstein%2C+reviews&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>5. For 2008 Albert Einstein film projects, see: http://search.curryguide.com/execute/search/nph-web.cgi?query=Albert+Einstein%2C+film+rights&amp;x=20&amp;y=7&amp;ac=pandia&amp;adbg=ffffff&amp;intprom=s&amp;where=</b>

<b>6. For Albert Einstein’s parents, see Isaacson, Chap. Two,
and:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Albert+Einstein’s+parents&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Albert+Einstein%27s+parents&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>7. For Thomas Edison’s (1847-1931) Pearl Street generator station, lower Manhattan, New York City, which first electrified a square mile of NYC buildings on Sept. 4, 1882,
see:
http://search.curryguide.com/execute/search/nph-web.cgi?query=Edison%2C+Pearl+Street%2C+Manhattan%2C+NYC&amp;x=16&amp;y=7&amp;ac=pandia&amp;adbg=ffffff&amp;intprom=s&amp;where=
and:
http://search.curryguide.com/execute/search/nph-web.cgi?query=Edison%2C+Pearl+Street%2C+Manhattan%2C+NYC&amp;x=16&amp;y=7&amp;ac=pandia&amp;adbg=ffffff&amp;intprom=s&amp;where=
and:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Thomas+Edison%2C+Pearl+Street%2C+Manhattan%2C+NYC&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and
http://www.google.com/search?q=Thomas+Edison%2C+Pearl+Street%2C+Manhattan%2C+NYC&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>8. For “Einstein, deformed as baby” and as a late talker,
see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+believed+deform+as+baby&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US23
and
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+believed+deform+as+baby&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>One account has little Albert saying for the first time at a meal, “The soup is too hot.” His relieved parents asked, “Why haven’t you spoken like this before?” His alleged reply was, “So far everything has been in order.”</b>

<b>9. Marie (called Maja) Einstein (1881-1951) and Albert were close all their lives. She later earned a doctorate in Romance Languages, University of Bern, Switzerland, 1909; married Paul Winteler, 1910; moved with him near Florence, Italy; fled to the U.S. in 1939 to escape persecution of Jews in Italy (husband Paul Winteler could not enter the U.S. for health reasons); and lived with her brother Albert Einstein on 112 Mercer Street, Princeton, NJ, until her death at age 70, June 25, 1951. For her writing on her brother Albert’s boyhood,
see:
http://books.google.com/books?id=dYpwdLWNR2cC&amp;pg=PR15&amp;lpg=PR15&amp;dq=Maja+Winteler-Einstein,+Albert+Einstein&amp;source=web&amp;ots=BWjdGz7UTt&amp;sig=boQnK9ICSMx2xYBzwogQUijXYbU
and:
http://books.google.com/books?id=dYpwdLWNR2cC&amp;pg=PR15&amp;lpg=PR15&amp;dq=Maja+Winteler-Einstein,+Albert+Einstein&amp;source=web&amp;ots=BWjdGz7UTt&amp;sig=boQnK9ICSMx2xYBzwogQUijXYbU</b>

<b>For more on sister Maja and Albert’s younger years, see:
http://www.einstein-website.de/biographies/einsteinmaja_content.html
and many entries under “Maja Winteler-Einstein—Einstein, Albert” at:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Maja+Winteler-Einstein%2C+Albert+Einstein&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>10. For Einstein age 4, ill, “Einstein, compass”…hidden behind things,” see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+compass&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>11. For “Einstein as a boy disliking a Prussian-style military parade,” see: Isaacson, p. 21, and:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+boy%2C+military+parade&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>12. For “…he’ll never make a success,” see Clark, p. 10. For “primary teachers as sergeants” see Isaacson, p. 21. On the later scientific value of his slowness as a boy, Einstein wrote: …”that his slow development and backwardness aided him in developing his theories. The normal adult never thinks about space and time. These are thoughts that he has thought about when he was a child. But since my intellectual development was retarded, as a result of which I began to wonder about space and time only when I had already grown up. Naturally, I could go deeper into the problem than a child with normal abilities.”
Sources:
http://www.jewishmag.com/59mag/einstein/einstein.htm
and:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+school%2C+He+will+never+amount+to+much.&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234&amp;aq=t</b>

<b>13. Isaacson, pp. 17-18.</b>

<b>14. On Talmey: It was an old Jewish custom to invite a poor student to family meals, as depicted in Sholem Aleichim’s (1859-1916) Fiddler on the Roof (film) when milkman Teyve invites the traveling university student to a Friday evening meal. See: Isaacson, pp. 18, 19-20, 23, 82, 294-295; and
http://www.chem.harvard.edu/herschbach/Einstein_Student.pdf</b>

<b>15. Aaron Bernstein (1812-84), People’s Books on Natural Science. Born Max Talmud (Talmud means instruction or the authoritative body of Jewish tradition), his name was changed to Max Talmey when he immigrated to the U.S.</b>

<b>16. Max Talmey, Relativity Theory Simplified and the Formative Period of its Inventor, With an Introduction by George B. Pegram, 1932. Talmud gave Albert a book titled Force and Matter, never imagining that years later Einstein would publish theories of relativity, show that matter could be turned into energy, give the world the famous formula, E =mc2, connect spacetime as one entity, and show that Newton’s gravity was really curved spacetime.</b>

<b>17. For many entries on “Einstein, Talmey,”
see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Talmey&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>18. Albert left Munich for Pavia, Italy, Dec. 29, 1894.</b>

<b>19. Called Zurich Polytechnic College in this paper for clarity it was founded in 1854, opened in 1855 as Swiss Federation of Technology, known familiarly as ETH, its German abbreviation. It has always been highly ranked academically with 21 Nobel Laureates associated with it as students or faculty. Albert’s first born son Hans Albert Einstein (1904-73) also attended ETH and received his Ph.D. in technical sciences there in 1936. See: Fox &amp; Keck, pp. 49-52;
and:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ETH_Zurich</b>

<b>20. Gustav Maier was the family friend who got Einstein the age waiver to take his first Zurich Polytechnic entrance exam. Maier’s banking firm in Ulm, Germany, had been located on the same street as Einstein’s grandfather’s featherbed factory.
See:
http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E02E2DB123BF937A25751COA962948260&amp;sec=health&amp;spon=&amp;pagewanted=print
http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E02E2DB123BF937A25751COA962948260&amp;sec=health&amp;spon=&amp;pagewanted=print</b>

<b>21. Einstein’s first (failed) entrance exam dates were Oct. 8-14, 1895.</b>

<b>22. Pestalozzi’s world wide influence included John Dewey’s (1859-1952) U.S. child-centered progressive school movement.</b>

<b>23. Einstein added to this thought question (at age 16): …”Of course, such a thing is impossible.” Isaacson, p. 26.</b>

<b>24. Jost Winteler (1846-1929) was school principal and history and Greek professor. Another Winteler daughter Anna later married Albert’s close friend Micheleangelo Besso. The Winteler son, Paul, later married Albert’s sister Maja, forming a life-long Einstein-Winteler connection.</b>

<b>25. For many entries on “Einstein, Winteler,”
see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Winteler&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234 &lt;http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Winteler&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234&gt;</b>

<b>26. Einstein’s essay on his future plans was written in faulty French. See: Isaacson, p. 31.</b>

<b>27. For entries on Prof. Heinrich Weber, see
(1): http://www-history.mcs.standrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Weber_Heinrich.html</b>

<b>(2): http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Heinrich+Weber&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
&lt;http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Heinrich+Weber&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234&gt;</b>

<b>28. For “Einstein, Marie Winteler,” her despondency, breakdown, and recovery after Einstein broke off their romance, and on her later marriage and life,
see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Marie+Winteler&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Marie+Winteler&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>29. Albert called Mileva “Dollie”; she called him “Johnnie.” See Isaacson index for many entries under Maric, Mileva. For other entries under “Einstein, Mileva Maric:”
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Mileva+Maric&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Mileva+Maric&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>For New York Times articles on Mileva Maric:
http://query.nytimes.com/search/query?frow=0&amp;n=10&amp;srcht=s&amp;query=Mileva+Maric&amp;srchst=nyt&amp;submit.x=34&amp;submit.y=13&amp;submit=sub&amp;hdlquery=&amp;bylquery=&amp;daterange=full&amp;mon1=01&amp;day1=01&amp;year1=1981&amp;mon2=02&amp;day2=11&amp;year2=2008
and: http://query.nytimes.com/search/query?frow=0&amp;n=10&amp;srcht=s&amp;query=Mileva+Maric&amp;srchst=nyt&amp;submit.x=34&amp;submit.y=13&amp;submit=sub&amp;hdlquery=&amp;bylquery=&amp;daterange=full&amp;mon1=01&amp;day1=01&amp;year1=1981&amp;mon2=02&amp;da</b>

<b>(3) Also from New York Times on Mileva Maric:
http://query.nytimes.com/search/query?query=Mileva+Maric&amp;srchst=g&amp;submit.x=12&amp;submit.y=9
and: http://query.nytimes.com/search/query?query=Mileva+Maric&amp;srchst=g&amp;submit.x=12&amp;submit.y=9</b>

<b>30. Isaacson, p. 42.</b>

<b>31. Ibid., p. 34.</b>

<b>32. Ibid., p. 35. Einstein ignored Prof. Jean Pernet’s lab instructions, caused a lab explosion, which injured Einstein’s right hand.</b>

<b>33. Ibid., p. 35. Math Prof. Minkowski later remarked that Einstein was: Q “…a lazy dog [who] never bothers about mathematics at all.” Ironically in 1907, 7 years after Albert graduated from Zurich Polytechnic, Prof. Minkowski developed the mathematical framework that made Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity more acceptable to scientists. Prof Minkowski said sometime after 1905: “For me [Einstein's work] came as a tremendous surprise… for in his student days Einstein had been a lazy sluggard [Faulpelz]. He never bothered about mathematics at all.”
See:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Minkowki</b>

<b>34. Micheleangelo Besso (1873-1955), a mechanical engineer, 6 years older than Einstein, was Einstein’s lifelong friend, a sounding board for Einstein’s ideas, and acted as an elder brother in Einstein’s troubled marriage to and divorce from Mileva Maric. Besso and his wife Anna née Winteler Besso also helped care for the Einstein’s two sons.</b>

<b>Einstein and Besso both played the violin and had similar science interests. They met while Einstein boarded with Aarau Cantonal high school’s principal Jost Winteler whose older daughter Anna Lee married Besso in 1898. The Bessos moved to Milan, Italy, where he was an electrical society’s consultant until Einstein, then working at the Bern Swiss Patent Office, knowing of a vacancy, urged Besso to successfully apply.</b>

<b>Reflecting on Besso’s death shortly before Einstein’s own death (April 18, 1955), he wrote to Besso’s son and wife, marveling that Besso had lived so long and happily in harmony with his wife, “an undertaking in which I twice failed rather miserably.” Isaacson, p. 540.</b>

<b>35. Marcel Grossmann, whose father owned a factory near Zurich, later helped Einstein in two turning points of his life; first, by persuading his father to speak to the Swiss Patent Office director about Einstein’s abilities and need for a job. This led to Einstein’s Patent Office job during1902-09. Secondly, then math Prof. Marcel Grossman taught Einstein during 1911-12 (both then taught at Zurich Polytechnic) the special math for curved space Einstein needed for his 1915 General Theory of Relativity. For many entries on “Einstein, Marcel Grossmann,
see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Marcel+Grossmann&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Marcel+Grossmann&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>36. Albert Einstein’s final exam score at Zurich Polytechnic was 4.9 out of 6, allowing him to graduate with a Diploma on July 28, 1900. Mileva’s Maric’s failing score was 4 out of 6. Source: White &amp; Gribble pp. 40, 49.</b>

<b>37. Isaacson, p. 61 and:
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/einstein/bodanis.html</b>

<b>38. Shortened letter from full versions in: Overbye, p. 72, and
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/einstein/bodanis.html</b>

<b>39. Neither Marie Winteler nor Mileva Maric were Jewish.</b>

<b>40. For scholarly investigation of Albert Einstein-Mileva Mirac’s love child, see: Michele Zackheim. Einstein’s Daughter, The Search for Lieserl. NY: Penguin Putnam, 1999. See also Isaacson, p. 66.</b>

<b>41. Isaacson, Chap. 4, “The Lovers, ” especially p. 66.</b>

<b>42. Ibid. Mileva Maric’s close friend in Serbia was Helene Kaufler Savic. See: Zackheim’s book.</b>

<b>43. Isaacson, Chap 4. For a photo of Einstein and two “Olympia Academy” students, Conrad Habicht (1876-1958) and Maurice Solovine (1875-1958),
see:
http://www.einstein-website.de/z_biography-e.html</b>

<b>44. These self-named Olympia Academy avant garde rebels read and discussed classics, including philosophers Spinoza on God in nature and David Hume (1711-76) on skepticism. They discussed scientists Austrian physicist Ernst Mach (1838-1916), French mathematician Henri Poincaré (1854-1912), both of whose works influenced Albert’s relativity theories of 1905 and 1915. Isaacson, pp. 79-84, lists other authors and books read by Olympia Academy students.</b>

<b>45. Marcel Grossman first told Einstein of the possible Swiss Patent Office position at Bern in April 1901. Einstein applied for the post in Dec. 1901, was offered the post on June 16, 1902, and started work there on June 23, 1902. His job was confirmed as permanent on Sept. 1904. He was promoted to Technical Expert Second Class on April 1, 1906. He resigned July 6, 1909, to become University of Zurich physics professor. For many entries on “Einstein, Patent Office, Bern, Switzerland,”
see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Patent+Office%2C+Bern%2C+Switzerland&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and: http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Patent+Office%2C+Bern%2C+Switzerland&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>46. For entries on “Einstein, Patent Office, Bern,”
see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Patent+Office%2C+Bern&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and: http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Patent+Office%2C+Bern&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and:
http://www.einsteinyear.org/facts/timeline</b>

<b>47. Albert Einstein’s first son, Hans Albert Einstein, born May 14, 1904, who died in 1973, is mentioned in Footnote 19 above.</b>

<b>48. First 1905 photo electric effect paper: Albert Einstein, “On a Heuristic [i.e., Hypothetical] Point of View Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light,” Annalen der Physik, Vol. 17 (June 9, 1905), pp. 132-148. For details of all Einstein 1905 “Miracle Year” published writings,
see:
http://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/2509_Einstein_1905.html
http://www.pitt.edu/%7Ejdnorton/teaching/2509_Einstein_1905.html
and:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+1905%2C+Miracle+Year&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+1905%2C+Miracle+Year&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>49. Second 1905 “Brownian Movement” paper: Albert Einstein, “On the Movement of Small Particles Suspended in Stationary Liquids Required by the Molecular-Kinetic Theory of Heat,” Annalen der Physik, Vol. 17 (July 18, 1905), pp. 549-560.</b>

<b>50. Third 1905 Special Relativity paper: Albert Einstein, “On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies,” Annalen der Physik (Annals of Physics, Vol. 17 (Sept. 26, 1905), pp. 891-921.</b>

<b>When Einstein finished his Special Relativity paper he gave his 31 scribbled pages to wife Mileva Maric to check for math errors and fell exhausted into bed. The background and Einstein’s thought processes on this third Special Relativity paper are explained in Overbye, Chap. 10; in Isaacson, Chapters 5 and 6;
And:
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/einstein/kaku.html</b>

<b>51. For many entries on “Einstein, E=MC2,”
see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+E%3DMC2&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and: http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+E%3DMC2&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>52. Isaacson, p. 140.</b>

<b>53. Few before Einstein made such imaginative leaps. The mystery is how–mostly alone by reading, study, and thought experiment–during 10 hectic troubled years ages 16 to 26, Einstein took insights from earlier scientists’ findings and put them together in remarkable ways in his 1905 papers.</b>

<b>We may never know the sources of Einstein’s rare intelligence, genius, boldness to be, do, and think differently. His father had a markedly careful way of looking at things from every possible angle. His mother was independent and determined. His Jewish heritage may account for his reverence for an all-knowing God who works through nature’s wonders.  His early troubled life, the temper of his time, his minority status as a Jew among Christians may all have spurred his drive for thinking about and determination to account for nature’s wonders.</b>

<b>54. Einstein’s University of Zurich Ph.D. Dissertation (1905): “A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions,” 1905, Annalen der Physik, 19 (1906), pp. 289-305, is his least impressive but most cited Einstein publication because of its usefulness. It deals simply with how sugar particles are suspended in a fluid, but has been surprisingly applicable to the way sand particles get stirred up in cement mixers, the properties of cow’s milk, and the way fine particles of dust and droplets of liquid (aerosols) are suspended in clouds.
Source:
http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg14019054.400-the-everyday-world-of-einstein-what-did-albert-want-with-acup-of-sweet-coffee-a-cement-mixer-and-a-dirty-cloud-.html
and:
http://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/2509_Einstein_1905.html
and:
http://www.pitt.edu/%7Ejdnorton/teaching/2509_Einstein_1905.html</b>

<b>55. The “few” students attending Einstein’s early morning University of Bern lectures included his friend Michele Besso and his sister Maja, then studying for the University of Zurich Ph.D. in Romance Languages. White &amp; Gribble, p. 75.</b>

<b>56. University of Berlin physicist Max Planck, 21 years older, was Einstein’s father figure. Planck’s assistant Max von Lau became Einstein’s helpful friend. Planck was the first leading physicist to accept and soon lecture on Einstein’s relativity theory. As Annalen der Physik editor Planck published Einstein’s 1905 papers (also earlier and later papers).</b>

<b>University of Berlin Profs. Planck and Walther Nernst (1864-1941), both went in person to persuade Einstein to work in Berlin (1914-33).  Unlike Newton and James C. Maxwell, who saw light as a wave, Planck was the first to consider light as rapidly moving discrete particles, an idea which Einstein incorporated in his 1905 photo-electric effect paper.  Planck met with Hitler to argue, unsuccessfully, that the Nazi campaign against the Jews hurt German science. Planck’s son was killed by the Gestapo in 1944 for being involved in an unsuccessful Hitler assassination plot. Source: Fox &amp; Keck, pp. 216-219.</b>

<b>57. Einstein’s sickly second son Eduard Einstein (1910-65) was diagnosed with schizophrenia in 1930 and died at age 55 in a Zurich mental asylum. As caretaker, his mother Mileva Maric Einstein bore most of the emotional burden, often helped by the Bessos, while Einstein paid the financial cost.</b>

<b>58. Einstein first met at the First Solvay Science Conference, Brussels, Belgium, Oct. 1911, such world renown scientists as France’s Marie Curie, French mathematician Jules Henri Poincaré (1854-1912), Germany’s Max Planck, New Zealand born Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937), and Dutch physicist Henrik A. Lorentz (1853-1928).</b>

<b>Of Einstein’s relativity theory Planck wrote: “If Einstein’s theory should prove to be correct, as I expect it will, he will be considered the Copernicus of the twentieth century.” Source: Aczel, p. 27.</b>

<b>Asked to evaluate Einstein as possible Zurich Polytechnic physics professor, Marie Curie wrote: “I much admire the work which Einstein has published…and think…his work as being in the first rank.”</b>

<b>In this same connection J.H. Poincaré wrote of Albert: “The future will show more and more, the worth of Einstein, and the university which is able to capture this young master is certain of gaining much honour from the operation.” White &amp; Gribble, p. 109 and Isaacson, pp.168-171.</b>

<b>59. In Berlin during 1914-33 Einstein was also a member of the Prussian Academy of Science and directed research at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute. For many entries on “Einstein, University of Berlin,”
see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+University+of+Berlin&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+University+of+Berlin&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>60. For Einstein’s “living conditions” instructions to his first wife Mileva Maric and of his affairs with other women,
see: http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/einstein/life/family.php</b>

<b>61. Elsa Einstein married textile trader Max Lowenthal (1864-1914) in 1896 and divorced him in 1908. For Elsa Einstein biography, see: http://www.einstein-website.de/biographies/einsteinelsa.html</b>

<b>62. An abortive attempt was made to photo-test a summer 1914 eclipse for Einstein best seen in the Crimea, Russia by Berlin’s Royal Prussian Observatory assistant Erwin Freundlich (1885-1964). Freundlich got to the Crimea with photo equipment just as World War I erupted, was captured as a spy, and was luckily released in an exchange of prisoners. This failed attempt strangely helped Albert for he had made a mistake in math so that his degrees of arc of bent-light was slightly off. Had this abortive photo expedition been successful his General Relativity Theory might have been discredited. See: Isaacson, index under Freundlich, Erwin Finlay.</b>

<b>63. Because of WW I communications disruption Einstein sent his 1915 General Relativity paper to University of Leyden (Netherlands) astronomy Prof. Willem de Sitter (1872-1935), who forwarded it via Finland to England’s Cambridge University astronomer Arthur Stanley Eddington (1882-1944). Eddington, soon a convinced relativity believer, helped prove Einstein’s General Relativity theory true in a 1919 eclipse, resulting in Einstein’s near-instant world fame. Source: Clark, pp. 208-09f. For “Einstein, Eddington” entries,
see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Eddington&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Eddington&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>64. For entries on the startling results of “Einstein, 1919 eclipse,”
see: Bodanis interview in:
http://www.panmacmillan.com/interviews/displayPage.asp?PageID=3365
and:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+1919+eclipse&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+1919+eclipse&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>65. Ibid., for headline news coverage of “Einstein, 1919 eclipse.”</b>

<b>66. Nominated annually since 1910 for the Nobel Prize for Physics, Einstein’s selection was bypassed because the selection committee thought his relativity theories might be wrong and by anti-Jewish prejudice, led by former (1905) Nobel Physics Prize winner Philipp A. Lenard (1862-1947), a virulent anti-Semite and later dedicated Nazi.</b>

<b>Einstein’s Nobel Prize selection was also delayed after 1919 photo eclipse proof of his relativity theory because it contradicted over 200 years of Newtonian physics. No physics prize was given in 1921, allowing the committee to compromise, giving the 1922 prize to Danish physicist Niels H.D. Bohr (1885-1962) and the 1921 prize to Einstein, not for his still controversial relativity theories, but for his practical 1905 photoelectric effect theory.</b>

<b>knowing that Einstein planned a lecture tour in Japan, University of Berlin friend Max von Laue alerted Einstein about a special honor in December 1922 but Einstein, annoyed at the long delay and showing indifference, went on to Japan.</b>

<b>Diplomats had to sort out the protocol problem: German ambassador to Sweden Rudolf Nadolny accepted the Nobel Prize for Einstein, the Swedish ambassador to Germany handed Einstein the Nobel medal on his return to Japan, and Einstein, ignoring the fact that he had been awarded the prize for his photo electric effect theory, instead gave his Nobel speech, July 1923 on relativity. Sources: White &amp; Gribbin, pp. 100, 125, 165-166, 179-180. Fox &amp;Keck, pp. 190-195.</b>

<b>For entries on “Einstein, Nobel Prize for Physics for 1921″   and for “Einstein, Rudolf Nadolny,”
see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Rudolf+Nadolny&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and:
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234&amp;q=Einstein%2C+Noble+Prize+in+Physics+for+1921&amp;btnG=Search
and:
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234&amp;q=Einstein%2C+Noble+Prize+in+Physics+for+1921&amp;btnG=Search</b>

<b>67. For entries on “Einstein, Atom Bomb,
see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+atom+bomb&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and: http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+atom+bomb&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>68. For key Einstein events in the U.S., 1933-55, 22 years:</b>

<b>(1) Einstein’s first U.S. visit, April 2-May 30, 1921, with Zionist leader Chaim Weizmann (1874-1952, Russian-born, British subject) to raise funds for what is now Hebrew University of Jerusalem (which still benefits from owning his papers and has commercial copyright use of his name). Einstein was given a hero’s welcome in NYC and lectured in Washington, D.C. and Cleveland, Ohio.</b>

<b>(2) He returned to the U.S. briefly in 1931 to lecture at California Institute of Technology (Caltech), visited Hollywood, CA, where he was cheered as a rock star when he appeared with Charlie Chaplin (1889-1977) at the opening of Chaplin’s City Lights film. When Einstein asked what the cheering meant, Chaplin replied: they cheer me because they all understand me; they cheer you because no one understands you. For entries for “Einstein, Millikan, Caltech,
see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Millikan%2C+Caltech&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>(3) Why Einstein worked at the Institute of Advanced Study, Princeton, NJ, 1933 to his death in 1955, 22 years:  About 1929 wealthy Newark, NJ, department store owner Louis Bamberger (1855-1944) and his sister Caroline née Bamberger Fuld asked educator and philanthropic foundation executive Abraham Flexner’s (1866-1959) advice on the best use of a $5 million philanthropic gift.</b>

<b>Flexner urged them to create an Institute for Advanced Study where eminent scholars free from lecturing and other duties could explore new knowledge. The idea was modeled on Kaiser Wilhelm II Institutes some 20 years earlier (Einstein headed the one in Berlin during 1917-33). Practical results from these research institutes helped make Germany a world leader in industries related to chemistry and science.</b>

<b>Flexner, who would later site his Institute for Advanced Studies in Princeton, NJ (near but independent of Princeton University), was in Pasadena, CA, early 1932, to confer with California Institute of California (Caltech) chief scientist Robert Millikan (1868-1953) about recruiting European and U.S. scientists. Millikan told Flexner to speak to Einstein then at Caltech.</b>

<b>Einstein, then on his second annual short term Caltech lecturing visit (during 1931, 1932, 1933), became interested in Flexner’s Institute for Advanced Study. They talked again in Oxford, England, late spring, 1932; and again two months later at Einstein’s summer home in Carputh near Berlin. Einstein agreed to join the Institute for Advanced Study initially for 6 months.</b>

<b>In December 1932, to escape Hitler’s holocaust (Hitler became Chancellor of Germany Jan. 30 1933), Einstein fled Germany to work at the Institute for Advance Study, Princeton, NJ. He lived nearby at 112 Mercer Street, became a U.S. citizen (while retaining Swiss citizenship) on Oct. 30, 1940, and died in 1955.</b>

<b>For entries on “Einstein, Flexner,”see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Flexner&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Flexner&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>For Franklin &amp; Betty Parker, “Abraham and Simon Flexner, Medical Education Reformers,” access any one of the following 3 blogs:
http://bfparker.sulekha.com/blog/post/2007/06/abraham-and-simon-flexner-medical-education-reformers.htm
(or): http://bfparker.mindsay.com/abraham_and_simon_flexner_medical_education_reformersby_franklinbetty_parker.mws
(or):  http://bfparker.shoutpost.com/archives/2007/June</b>

<b>(4) Einstein’s Aug. 2, 1939 letter to Pres. F.D. Roosevelt warning of Nazi’s atom bomb progress: Einstein in Princeton, N.J., first heard in late 1938 from Danish physicist Niels Bohr (1885-1962) that German scientists were nearing success in splitting the uranium atom and making a bomb of unimaginable destruction.</b>

<b>This information was confirmed to Einstein in mid July 1939 while on vacation in long Island, NY, by visiting Jewish physicist Leo Szilard (1898-1964), who had also fled Nazi Germany to the U.S. Szilard and another physicist drafted and prevailed on Einstein to sign a letter to Pres. Roosevelt, Aug. 2, 1939, warning him of the danger</b>

<b>The letter and attending reports on it languished in U.S. bureaucratic files until Pearl Harbor when British intelligence, which knew of the danger, pressured the U.S. military to create the secret Manhattan Project leading to the U.S. atom bombs dropped on Japan that ended WW II.</b>

<b>See footnote 67 for entries on “Einstein, Atom Bomb.” See indexes under “Roosevelt, Franklin” in Overbye, Fox &amp; Keck (especially pp. 9-14), White &amp; Gribbon, Clark, Hoffmann, Isaacson. For entries on “Einstein, Roosevelt,”
see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Roosevelt&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Roosevelt&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>Best Albert Einstein Internet Sources</b>

<b>1. “Albert Einstein, 1879-1955.” Library of Congress, many entries on 10 pp.:
http://search.loc.gov:8765/query.html?col=loc&amp;qt=Alfred+Einstein&amp;qp=url%3A%2Frr%2F+url%3A%2Fcfbook%2Furl%3A%2Fpoetry%2F+url%3A%2Ffolklife%2F&amp;submit.x=13&amp;submit.y=13</b>

<b>2. Albert Einstein, 1879-1955.” 39 clips of film stock footage libraries:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Albert+Einstein%2C+stock+film+footage&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>3. World Year of Physics 2005: Einstein in the 21st Century:
Physics groups world-wide designated 2005 the “World Year of Physics, honoring the centennial of Einstein’s 1905 “Year of Miracles” and the 50th year since his death in 1955. Over 400 world wide celebratory events were held including conferences, museum exhibits, webcasts, plays, poetry reading, and other events.
http://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/12/opinion/12horgan.html
and
http://physics2005.org/international.html</b>

<b>4. Albert Einstein Quotes/Articles on God, Religion, Ethics and Science
http://atheism.about.com/od/einsteingodreligion/tp/EinsteinGodReligionScience.htm
and:
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&amp;ie=ISO-8859-1&amp;q=Albert+Einstein%2C+God%2C+Religion%2C+Ethics&amp;btnG=Google+Search
and
http://atheism.about.com/sitesearch.htm?terms=Albert%20Einstein&amp;SUName=atheism&amp;TopNode=2928&amp;type=1
and: http://atheism.about.com/sitesearch.htm?terms=Albert%20Einstein&amp;SUName=atheism&amp;TopNode=2928&amp;type=1
and:
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/quotes_einstein.html</b>

<b>5. Albert Einstein Quotes (general): http://quotations.about.com/od/stillmorefamouspeople/a/AlbertEinstein2.htm</b>

<b>6. Albert Albert Quotes with sources and links to his life and contributions):
http://everything2.com/index.pl</b>

<b>7. Albert Einstein photographs:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+photos&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and:&lt;
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+photos&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>8. For Einstein books, articles, photos, and archival finding aids: http://www.aip.org/servlet/plainHistory?collection=HISTORY&amp;queryText=Albert+Einstein&amp;SEARCH+BUTTON.x=18&amp;SEARCH+BUTTON.y=7
and: http://www.aip.org/servlet/plainHistory?collection=HISTORY&amp;queryText=Albert+Einstein&amp;SEARCH+BUTTON.x=18&amp;SEARCH+BUTTON.y=7</b>

<b>9. PBS (Public Broadcasting System, TV) entries on “Albert Einstein”: http://www.pbs.org/search/search_results.html?q=Albert+Einstein&amp;btnG.x=10&amp;btnG.y=7
and: http://www.pbs.org/search/search_results.html?q=Albert+Einstein&amp;btnG.x=10&amp;btnG.y=7</b>

<b>10. Science writers on Albert Einstein:</b>

<b>(1): John Horgan, science writing program, Stevens Institute of Technology, NJ, articles on Einstein:
http://www.google.com/search?q=John+Horgan%2C+Einstein&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234&amp;aq=t
and: http://www.google.com/search?q=John+Horgan%2C+Einstein&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234&amp;aq=t</b>

<b>(2): Books on Albert Einstein by Don Howard, History of Science, Notre Dame University:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Don+Howard%2C+Einstein&amp;sourcenavclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and
http://www.google.com/search?q=Don+Howard%2C+Einstein&amp;sourcenavclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>(3): Lee Smolin, Theoretical Physics, Pennsylvania State University, articles, books on Einstein:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Lee+Smolin%2C+Einstein&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and
http://www.google.com/search?q=Lee+Smolin%2C+Einstein&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>(4): livescience.com &lt;http://livescience.com has entries on Einstein, including “Will There Ever be Another Einstein?”:
http://www.livescience.com/strangenews/ap_050418_einstein.html</b>

<b>11. For “Einstein, Federal Bureau of Investigation” massive report, see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Federal+Bureau+of+Investigation&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and: http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Federal+Bureau+of+Investigation&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>12. For “Albert Einstein Timelines and Chronology,” see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Albert+Einstein+Timelines+and+Chronology&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and: http://www.google.com/search?q=Albert+Einstein+Timelines+and+Chronology&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>13. For About.com &lt;http://About.com&gt;  search on “Albert Einstein,” see:
http://search.about.com/fullsearch.htm?terms=Albert%20Einstein</b>

<b>14. For entries on “Albert Einstein death,”
see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Marie+Winteler&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Marie+Winteler&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>END OF REFERENCES. Email corrections, questions to: bfparker@frontiernet.net</b>

<b>About the Authors</b>

<b>1. For biographical account: “Betty &amp; Franklin Parker Looking Back Since 1946,”
access:   http://bfparker.blogster.com/betty_franklin_parker_looking.html
or: http://ourstory.com/story.html?v=10919
or: http://www.progressiveu.org/182455-betty-franklin-parker-looking-back-since-1946-57-years-of-a-good-idea-thanksgiving-2007-bfparker-frontiernet-net
or:  http://bootlog.com/index.php?cat=travelogs&amp;aut=bfparker
or: http://bootlog.com/index.php?cat=travelogs&amp;aut=bfparker</b>

<b>2. For a list of 153 of authors’ publications go to: http://www.worldcat.org
type in: Franklin Parker, 1921- and you should get the following URL:
http://www.worldcat.org/search?q=Parker%2C+Franklin%2C+1921-%2C&amp;=Search&amp;qt=results_page
or:
http://www.worldcat.org/search?q=Parker%2C+Franklin%2C+1921-%2C&amp;=Search&amp;qt=results_page</b>

<b>3. To access free E-Book full contents of Franklin Parker, <i>George Peabody, A Biography</i>. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1995 rev. edn., go to:
http://books.google.com/books?id=OPIbk-ZPnF4C&amp;dq=franklin+parker&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;source=web&amp;ots=qxV3RqTk1k&amp;sig=sXAmDL_CyCYd-Sl0n_IRl7g1S1I#PPP1,M1
or:
http://books.google.com/books?id=OPIbk-ZPnF4C&amp;dq=franklin+parker&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;source=web&amp;ots=qxV3RqTk1k&amp;sig=sXAmDL_CyCYd-Sl0n_IRl7g1S1I#PPP1,M1</b>

<b>Corrections, comments: bfparker@frontiernet.net END OF MANUSCRIPT <b>How Albert Einstein (1879-1955) Changed the Way We See the Universe,” by Franklin and Betty J. Parker, bfparker@frontiernet.net     Review of Walter Isaacson’s Einstein, <i>His Life and Universe</i>, NY: Simon &amp; Schuster, 2007, and related sources, given March 17, 2008, Uplands Retirement Village. Pleasant Hill, TN.</b>

<b>This is the true story of an independent loner, largely self-taught, a high school dropout who failed his technical college entrance exam, entered that technical college by the skin of his teeth, irritated his professors, barely graduated, and—by not bowing to authority—had to live hand-to-mouth on low pay substitute teaching for 18 months.  In 1905, while a lowly Swiss Patent Office clerk, he published 5 papers which changed the way we see the universe.  How did he do it?</b>

<b>We are not scientists.  What follows is our laypersons’ understanding of journalist-author Walter Isaacson’s 2007 bestseller Einstein, <i>His Life and Universe</i>.1  Author Isaacson, Time magazine’s managing editor when his staff voted Einstein the most important person of the 20th century,2 now heads the Aspen Institute, a think tank for executives, Washington, D.C.3</b>

<b>Recently opened Albert Einstein archives account for Isaacson’s Einstein biography, plus another biography by German science writer Jürgen Neffe.4   Over 500 Einstein biographies exist.  An Einstein film based on Isaacson’s book is planned plus other Einstein film projects.5</b>

<b>This interest in Einstein, we think, comes from his newly opened papers.  While known as a scientific genius, few people know of his troubled early life; fewer know how he changed the way we see the universe.</b>

<b>Albert’s father Hermann Einstein (1847-1902), at age 29 in Bavaria, Germany, married Pauline Koch (1858-1920), age 18 in 1876, both non-observing Jews. Pauline, his mother, a prosperous grain dealer’s daughter, was cultured, well read, a pianist and music lover. Hermann, whom she dominated, was generous, thoughtful, a devoted husband and father who failed in business.6</b>

<b>Albert Einstein was born March 14, 1879, in Ulm, near Stuttgart, Germany; born into a world where Isaac Newton’s (1642-1727) laws of motion and gravity had satisfactorily explained earth’s place in the universe over 200 years earlier.  No one then dreamed that anyone, let alone Albert Einstein, would add significantly to Newton’s laws.</b>

<b>Albert grew up among electric generators and motors. His uncle, engineer-inventor Jakob Einstein (1850-1912), introduced electricity into southern German towns, as Thomas Edison (1847-1931) did in New York City.7  Pauline Einstein, with a Koch family loan, encouraged husband Hermann’s partnership with Jakob. After Albert’s birth, the Einsteins moved (1880) from Ulm to Munich for better business opportunity.</b>

<b>Albert’s big head at birth and his being a late talker evoked fear that he was abnormal. Albert later told a biographer, “My parents were worried because I started to talk comparatively late, and they consulted a doctor….”8</b>

<b>When Albert was 2 his only sibling sister was born, Marie, called “Maja” Einstein (1881-1951).  She later described him as quiet and introspective.9</b>

<b>When Albert was 4 and ill, his father gave him a compass to play with. Albert later wrote: “When I saw…[its needle always point north, no matter how I turned it], the fact that it behaved in such a fixed way changed my understanding of the world. Until then, I thought that one thing had to touch another to make it move…. I realized that something deeply hidden had to lie behind things.” 10 These thoughts were an early hint of his lifelong search for unity in nature.</b>

<b>Albert was kept at home until age 7, taught the 3 Rs by a tutor, then enrolled in a nearby Catholic primary school, ages 7 to 9, 1885-88. He did well academically, received Catholic religious instruction in school plus state-required private Jewish instruction from a relative at home.</b>

<b>Taken as a little boy to watch a Prussian military parade, he cried out in horror: “I don’t want to be [regimented like]…those poor people.”11  He disliked school discipline and rote learning, especially in secondary school at Munich’s Luitpold Gymnasium, 6 years, ages 9 to 15 (1888-94).</b>

<b>Good in science and math, less interested in other subjects, he irritated some teachers by questioning their knowledge.  Asked about Albert’s potential, his headmaster said: “…he’ll never make a success.” Told by a teacher that he was not welcome in class, Albert said he had done nothing wrong.  His teacher said: “Yes, …but you sit there in the back row and smile and your mere presence here spoils the respect of the class for me.”  Albert later called his primary teachers sergeants, his gymnasium teachers lieutenants.12</b>

<b>Uncle Jakob taught him algebra. Albert mastered calculus by age 12. Reading math and science books reinforced his appreciation of orderliness in nature. He later said: “As a boy of 12, I was thrilled to see that it was possible to find out truth by reasoning alone, without the help of any outside experience.”13</b>

<b>Piano and violin lessons, urged by his mother, made him a lifelong violinist. He saw harmony and unity in music, science, and nature.</b>

<b>Max Talmey (1867-1941), age 21, a poor Polish Jewish medical student, invited to Thursday night dinners from 1889 for a few years, shared with Albert, from the age of 10, table talk on science, math, and philosophy.14</b>

<b>Talmey gave Albert a popular natural science book series describing current scientific experiments.15  The books were full of imaginative, creative what-ifs, leading Albert at 16 to ask: “What if I could ride alongside a beam of light?”  This question eventually led to his 1905 and 1915 theories of relativity.</b>

<b>Asked years later (1921) what he thought of those science books, Albert said: very good books, “[They] exerted a great influence on my whole development.”16</b>

<b>Talmey, spurring Albert’s curiosity at an impressionable age, remarked in his 1932 book about young Albert’s “exceptional intelligence [which enabled him to discuss with me, a college graduate,] subjects far beyond the comprehension of so young a child.”17</b>

<b>Albert, religious before age 10, became a doubter from age 12.  He read with Talmey philosopher Immanuel Kant’s (1724-1804) <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>, discussed Kant’s belief that the universe can be understood by thought alone. Albert read and agreed with philosopher Benedict Spinoza (1632-77) that God works through nature’s orderliness.</b>

<b>Business failure caused the Einsteins to move to Italy near their northern Italy partner firm in Milan, then to nearby Pavia. Albert at 15 needed 3 more years to complete secondary school. His parents decided he should remain in Munich where an Einstein relative would look after him until he graduated.</b>

<b>Lonely, unhappy, Albert looked for a way out of the Munich Gymnasium, which he disliked, knowing some teachers disliked him. He also dreaded German compulsory military service at age 17, two years ahead.</b>

<b>Albert, alone, age 15, asked the family physician for a letter stating that because of isolation from his family he was suffering from nervous exhaustion and needed the bracing air of northern Italy. From his math teacher he got a letter listing his high math scores.</b>

<b>This high school dropout took a train to Pavia, Italy,18 arrived unexpectedly at his parents’ home, and told them why he had dropped out of school and how he planned to continue his education.</b>

<b>He would study on his own, take the entrance exam in autumn 1895 to enter the highly regarded Polytechnic College in Zurich, Switzerland,19 which did not require secondary school graduation if an applicant passed its high entrance exams.  He also said: I want to renounce my German citizenship.</b>

<b>His concerned father prudently delayed submitting renunciation of German citizenship forms until Albert in Switzerland had applied for Swiss citizenship.  Albert was stateless  from 1896 until granted Swiss citizenship in 1901.</b>

<b>Helping in the family’s Pavia shop with its electric lighting equipment, Albert impressed Uncle Jakob by quickly solving electrical problems. Uncle Jakob assured everyone: “You will hear from him yet.”</b>

<b>In spring and summer 1895 Albert hiked the Alps and Apennines from Pavia to Genoa to see his maternal Uncle Julius Koch. He visited art and other culture centers, delighted at Italian friendliness, so unlike the stern Germans.</b>

<b>Reading physics textbooks helped him prepare for the Zurich Polytechnic entrance exams. He would be 16 when he took the Polytechnic entrance test intended for age 18 and older. A family friend got him a waiver of the age requirement.20</b>

<b>Albert passed the Zurich Polytechnic test in math and science but failed other subjects. Polytechnic Director Albin Herzog (1852-1909) suggested that Albert take a final secondary school year of guided study at nearby Aarau high school, whose graduates were automatically admitted to the Zurich Polytechnic.21</b>

<b>Aarau Cantonal High School, 25 miles west of Zurich, influenced by progressive Swiss educator Johann Pestalozzi (1746-1827),22 was teacher-friendly, student-centered, perfect for Albert.</b>

<b>He later told a friend: “In Aarau I made my first rather childish experiments in thinking that had a direct bearing on the Special [Relativity] Theory. If a person could run after a light wave with the same speed as light, you would have a wave arrangement which could be completely independent of time….”23</b>

<b>He boarded with principal Jost and Rosa Winteler.  Marie, one of their 7 children, was Albert’s first girl friend; she 18, he 16.24</b>

<b>With the Wintelers, Albert developed a quick wit and debonair jesting manner. When not in class or studying or hiking or playing violin duets or flirting with Marie Winteler, he joined the Winteler family’s liberal conversation.25</b>

<b>Graduating from the Aarau Cantonal High School with the second highest grades except in French, he wrote of his future plans as follows:</b>

<b>”…I will enroll in the Zurich Polytechnic….stay…four years [1896-1900] to study mathematics and physics…. I will be a teacher …of these sciences…. ¶[I have a] talent for abstract…thinking…. I am attracted by…the profession of science.”26</b>

<b>Albert enrolled, Oct. 29, 1896, in Zurich Polytechnic’s department preparing secondary school math and physics teachers, headed by Prof. Heinrich Weber (1842-1913).27</b>

<b>Romance came at Zurich Polytechnic with Mileva Maric (1875-1948), the only woman student in this department, from Novi Sad, Serbia, daughter of a wealthy landowner and judge. 28</b>

<b>Mileva, bright in math and physics, determined to succeed, had won top honors in an all-male Serbian scientific school. She at 21, Albert at 17, casual friends, hiked together in the summer of 1897. Albert admired Mileva for her science interest and for being, like himself, a rebel, outsider, survivor.29</b>

<b>Friendship ripened into love. Mileva Maric became, in Walter Isaacson’s words: “Einstein’s muse, partner, lover, wife [16 years, 1903-19]…and [finally] antagonist.”30</b>

<b>In his last two years at Zurich Polytechnic Albert skipped Prof. Heinrich Weber’s physics lectures, disappointed at Weber’s neglecting contemporary physics. Albert was enthralled with James Clerk Maxwell’s (1831-79) books on <i>Electricity and Magnetism</i>, 1873; and <i>Matter and Motion</i>, 1876.</b>

<b>Albert irritated his major professor by addressing him as “Herr Weber” instead of the more respectful “Herr Professor.” Prof. Weber gave Albert a dressing down (1898-99): “You’re a clever boy. But you have one great fault: you’ll never let yourself be told anything.”31</b>

<b>Albert’s other physics professor, Jean Pernet (1845-1902) asked his assistant: “What do you make of Einstein? He always does something different from what I have ordered.” The assistant replied, “He does indeed, Herr Professor, but his solutions are right and the methods he uses are of great interest.”32</b>

<b>Albert focused on physics, less on math. He later regretted skipping math Prof. Hermann Minkowski’s (1864-1909) advanced math lectures.33</b>

<b>Studying what interested him, Albert risked failing final exams. Friends tutored him: Mileva Maric, engineering student Micheleangelo Besso,34 and math major Marcel Grossmann’s (1878-1936) who shared his detailed lecture notes.  Grossmann understood Albert’s independent spirit, recognized Albert’s talents, and told his parents, “This Einstein will one day be a great man.”35</b>

<b>Albert barely passed his final exams. Mileva Maric failed but planned to try again.36   Financial aid from Albert’s family stopped on graduation. His fellow graduates all received coveted teaching jobs or research assistantships. Albert sent out many applications.  No one answered.</b>

<b>Albert complained that Prof. Heinrich Weber’s bad references prevented his getting a job. Mileva attributed his joblessness to anti-Semitism and to his rebel attitude: “You know my sweetheart has a sharp tongue.”37</b>

<b>Today we are shocked that Einstein, an acknowledged genius, could not find an academic job after college graduation. For 18 months his only income was from short term low pay substitute teaching.</b>

<b>Isaacson described Einstein in this jobless period as: “Einstein the Nobody.” His father Hermann, knowing Albert had twice applied unsuccessfully to one professor for an assistantship, wrote that professor, without telling Albert:</b>

<b>”My son Albert, …22…, unhappy with his present lack of position,…[feels] …that he is a burden on us, people of modest means….¶I have taken the liberty of [asking you] to…write him… a few words of encouragement, so that he might recover his joy in living and working. ¶If…you could secure him an Assistant’s position…my gratitude would know no bounds…. Hermann Einstein.” No reply ever came.38</b>

<b>Opposed to Albert’s romance with Mileva Maric, Albert’s mother thought Mileva unsuitable, older, unhealthy, non-Jewish, a foreigner. During summer 1900 family vacation his mother asked Albert, “What will become of your Dollie now?”39</b>

<b>Albert replied: engagement and marriage. His mother wept.  Still worse, she and Albert’s father sent a jointly signed letter to Mileva Maric’s parents listing reasons against the marriage.</b>

<b>At last came a job possibility.  Albert’s friend Marcel Grossmann told his father of Albert’s joblessness. Grossmann’s father spoke to his friend, Swiss Patent Office Director Friedrich Haller (1844-1936). Haller told Albert to apply when a Patent Office job was posted. On this possibility, Albert moved to Bern, the Swiss capital, where the Patent Office was located.</b>

<b>Albert and Mileva had a romantic interlude at Lake Como on the Swiss-Italian border, spring 1901. Mileva wrote Albert she was pregnant. Albert promised to find a job “no matter how humble…[and despite] my scientific goals and my personal vanity.”40</b>

<b>Albert was with his family the summer of 1901 when Mileva retook her failed Zurich Polytechnic final exams. Three months pregnant, sick, her pregnancy a secret, with Albert’s parents opposed to their marriage, Mileva failed again.  Nor was Albert with her when, home in Serbia, she gave birth to a baby girl Lieserl, early Feb. 1902.41</b>

<b>Albert never saw, his parents never knew, the world never knew about Lieserl until 1986 from newly found Einstein family letters. Why the secrecy?  Speculating from Albert’s then troubled situation–he was the jobless, unconventional, near-bohemian father of an illegitimate child, unable to support a family, whose parents opposed his love mate. If he became publicly tarred as immoral he might not get the Swiss Patent Office job.</b>

<b>Mileva, in Serbia, her family helping, cared for the baby, exchanged anxious love letters with Albert, patiently awaited his hoped for job, his promised marriage. Historians speculate that Mileva’s close friend in Serbia took custody of Lieserl, that Lieserl died of scarlet fever.42</b>

<b>Needing money, awaiting the Patent Office job, Albert in a Bern newspaper advertised: “Private lessons in Mathematics and Physics….. Trial lessons free.” Several local students responded.43</b>

<b>Albert’s lectures to the jokingly named “Olympia Academy” students gave way to freewheeling discussions on physics, philosophy, classic books, over food and drink, on country walks, and on mountain hikes.44</b>

<b>Albert was finally appointed Swiss Patent Office Technical Expert Class 3 Provisional (on trial), June 16, 1902.  Director Friedrich Haller told  him: “When you pick up an application think that everything the inventor says is wrong.”  Be critical, vigilant, question every premise, challenge everything–an approach Albert liked. 45</b>

<b>Soon expert in judging patent applications, Albert rushed through the day’s work, did his own thought experiments, hid his notes when visitors or Director Haller approached. The Patent Office job, Albert later wrote: “…enforced my many-sided thinking and also provided important stimuli to…[my] thought[s on physics].”46</b>

<b>Hermann Einstein, 55, dying in Milan, Italy, Oct. 10, 1902, finally gave Albert permission to marry Mileva Maric. He and Mileva were married Jan. 6, 1903, in a civil ceremony attended only by two “Olympia Academy” friends.</b>

<b>With a steady job, income, marriage, regularity, Albert and Mileva had a son, Hans Albert Einstein, born May 14, 1904.47 Albert also had from 1904 as Patent Office co-worker his close friend Michelangelo Besso.  They shared scientific ideas and constantly discussed how mass (or matter), light, space, and time were related.  Between 1901-04 Albert wrote and published reviews of new physics writings and several so called “practice papers.”</b>

<b>Then, in 1905—about ideas he’d puzzled over for years–Albert published four papers plus his doctoral dissertation in the German physics journal, <i>Annalen der Physik</i>.  In time physicists recognized the originality and importance of these papers.</b>

<b>Of this 1905 “Miracle Year” he later wrote: “A storm broke out in my mind.”</b>

<b>First of Albert’s four 1905 papers was on the photo-electric effect of light, long thought to be a wave. Light, Albert wrote, is both a wave and fast-moving particles. When light particles hit certain metals they cause a mysterious release of electrons from the metals.</b>

<b>This photo-electric effect of light is the basis of many light operated devices: some automatic door openers, compact disks,  CAT scans using x-ray imaging for cancer, etc.</b>

<b>Albert’s photo-electric effect paper also helped establish Quantum Physics, the study of the strange behavior of electrons circling protons inside atoms. This photo-electric effect paper, because it was verifiable and practical, won Albert the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics.48</b>

<b>Albert’s second 1905 paper explained “Brownian Movement,” named after Scottish botanist Robert Brown (1773-1858), who found in 1827 under a microscope that tiny grains of pollen placed in water  moved about irregularly.</b>

<b>Seventy-eight years after Robert  Brown’s discovery, Albert proved that water molecules randomly hitting the pollen grains caused this jittery motion. His paper convinced doubting scientists that molecules and atoms exist, are active, and can be mathematically quantified.49</b>

<b>His third 1905 paper on Special Theory of Relativity, more important, was less understood.  Albert built on the Copernican-Kepler-Galileo finding that everything moves: our earth turns on its axis, revolves around our sun, which revolves with other suns in our Milky Way galaxy, which revolves among a spiral of other galaxies, etc.</b>

<b>Albert built his Special Theory of Relativity on two certainties: 1-the laws of physics are the same everywhere; 2-nothing travels faster than light at 186,000 miles per second.</b>

<b>Albert’s insight was that a movement takes place, an event occurs, each in its own frame of reference, relative to, in relation to, an observer’s place and rate of movement, which is the observer’s frame of reference.  In short: movements, events are relative to an observer.</b>

<b>On Albert’s daily streetcar ride home from work, looking back, he saw Bern’s famous Clock Tower receding.  He thought: if his streetcar heading away from the Clock Tower approached the speed of light, its clock hands would seem to slow down while his own pocket watch ticked normally.</b>

<b>On earth, Albert knew, where the fastest moving thing is a tiny fraction the speed of light’s 186,000 miles per second, Newton’s laws hold firm. Time and space, as Newton believed, do seem separate and fixed. But on a fast moving spaceship, approaching the speed of light, a clock aboard the spaceship (time) slows down.</b>

<b>The faster the spaceship, the more its clock slows down, called Time Dilation. Time Dilation has been proved. In 1971 two identically set atomic clocks, one stationary on the ground, the other jet-flown around the world, when compared, showed that the jet flown clock had slowed down.</b>

<b>To humans inside a speeding spaceship all seems normal. But as it passes a stationary observer, because of the observer’s frame of reference, the observer sees the oncoming spaceship shorter in front and longer in back.</b>

<b>Albert’s findings–startling, revolutionary, strange even to him–took time to be absorbed, argued about, understood, tested, and ultimately accepted by scientists.</b>

<b>Albert’s genius was to think differently, outside common thought, “outside the box.” His younger questioning rebellious skepticism led to these 1905 intuitive grand discoveries.</b>

<b>Albert worked out mathematical proof that Time and Space are not fixed, not separate, but are interwoven as spacetime. To our 3 dimensions of length, width, and height he added a fourth dimension–spacetime.50   The only fixed factor is the speed of light.</b>

<b>Albert’s fourth 1905 paper, a footnote to his third Special Theory of Relativity paper, held that matter and energy are similar and can be converted one into the other. Marie Curie (1867-1934), for example, found in 1902 that uranium from pitch-blend (matter), gave off electronic radiation energy.  Albert independently conceived of this matter-to-energy conversion in his famous formula: E=mc2.</b>

<b>E for Energy equals mass (which is, matter), multiplied by c (c for celeritus, Latin for speed of light), squared.  186,000 miles per second, squared, is so huge a number that if atoms on a pinhead could be split apart, their energy would explode like an atom bomb.51</b>

<b>Biographer Walter Isaacson wrote: “Einstein’s 1905 burst of creativity was astonishing. He had devised a revolutionary quantum theory of light, helped prove the existence of atoms, explained Brownian motion, upended the concept of space and time, and produced what would become science’s best known equation.”52</b>

<b>Albert’s Special Theory of Relativity covered only bodies moving parallel in straight lines at constant speeds.</b>

<b>It would take him 10 more years to find a General Theory of Relativity, backed by math, that explained how and why bodies in space move at varying speeds in curved motion around other bodies.53</b>

<b>Albert, waiting to be recognized, still needing Patent Office income, wrote other scholarly papers and also completed his Ph.D. dissertation for the University of Zurich, summer 1905.54</b>

<b>His application to be a University of Bern lecturer required submitting another original physics paper. This he did allowing him to lecture, unpaid except for student fees, 1908-1909, early mornings, before Patent Office hours, thus to only a few students. 55</b>

<b>The first scholar to inquire about Relativity was the world renowned University of Berlin physicist Max Planck (1858-1947,) who soon added Relativity to his own lectures.56</b>

<b>Planck’s assistant, Max von Laue (1879-1960), sent to Bern to consult Albert, was surprised to find him working as a lowly Patent Office clerk.</b>

<b>Noticed, at last, Albert received job offers. He resigned from the Patent Office July 6, 1909, where his best thinking had been done for 7 years. He became associate professor of physics, University of Zurich, 1909-10. He moved with Mileva, and 5-year old Hans Einstein to Zurich, Oct. 15, 1909, where their second son Eduard was born, July 28, 1910.57</b>

<b>He was full professor at German Speaking Karl-Ferdinand University, Prague, 1911-12.  While in Prague he attended a science conference in Brussels, Belgium, October 1911. At 32, the youngest physicist present, he met for the first time the greatest living physicists of the time, including Marie Curie.58</b>

<b>Albert next was physics professor at Zurich Polytechnic, 1912-1914, his alma mater, then granting Ph.D’s.  Here, luckily,  his friend Marcel Grossmann, head of the Polytechnic’s math department, taught Albert tensor calculus for curved space he needed to prove his 1915 General Theory of Relativity.</b>

<b>Albert’s last European position was at the prestigious University of Berlin, 1914-1933, 19 years, through World War I, Germany’s defeat and economic collapse, and Hitler’s rise to power, which forced Albert’s move to the U.S. in 1933.59</b>

<b>Raising two boys, the younger one, Eduard, a schizophrenic, Mileva’s science interest had waned. She resented Albert’s several extra-marital affairs, was bitter that he took the prestigious Berlin position partly to be near his divorced cousin Elsa Einstein (1876-1936), with whom he had an affair.</b>

<b>Marital friction deepened. Albert wrote out conditions under which he would live with Mileva: “You make sure . . . that I receive my three meals regularly in my room. You are neither to expect intimacy nor to reproach me in any way.”60  They separated. Mileva and the two boys left Berlin July 1914 for Zurich a month before WW I began (Aug. 1, 1914).</b>

<b>To get Mileva to agree to a divorce, Albert promised her and the boys the money from the Nobel Prize in Physics he expected, having been nominated annually since 1910.  The long divorce proceedings ended on Feb. 14, l919.  Albert admitted adultery.</b>

<b>Elsa, Albert’s cousin, divorced,61 lived with her two daughters Lisa and Margot in Berlin, where Albert visited her in 1912, before taking the Berlin job.</b>

<b>Separation and divorce from Mileva, overwork, carelessness about his health, caused Albert to become seriously ill during 1917-19.   Elsa restored his health. They married June 2, 1919. Elsa gave him regularity, protection, and freedom to think and write.</b>

<b>Albert’s first insight into his 1915 General Theory of Relativity came in a thought experiment in 1907 while still at the Patent Office.  His thought was: if a workman fell from a roof, until he hit the ground, he and everything on him would be weightless in free fall. So too would be people in a falling elevator atop a tall building whose holding cable had snapped.</b>

<b>His surprising insight was that moving heavenly bodies, like people and objects in free fall, carry spacetime with them.</b>

<b>His insights, greatly simplified, were: 1-The larger a moving heavenly body is, the more curved spacetime it carries around with it. 2-Newton’s gravity is really curved spacetime. 3-When starlight reaches a large mass like the sun that starlight will be slightly bent by the curved spacetime around the sun’s enormous mass. 4-If he figured the precise arc of light bent around an eclipsed sun, then a photograph of that eclipse would prove the correctness of his General Theory of Relativity.</b>

<b>Helped by tensor calculus taught him by his math friend Marcel Grossmann, Albert published his General Relativity paper, March 20, 1915, revised in 1916.62</b>

<b>In 1917 with WW I raging, Britain’s Royal Astronomer Frank Watson Dyson (1868-1939) planned for Cambridge University astronomer Arthur Stanley Eddington (1882-1944) to head a British team to photograph the sun’s eclipse predicted two years later, on May 29, 1919.63</b>

<b>Two photo team were sent to photograph the eclipse:  one went to Principe, a Portuguese island off West Africa; another photo team went to Sobral, northern Brazil, the two best viewing sites. These photos confirmed Einstein’s predicted arc of light deflection.  Einstein’s General Relativity Theory was thus proved true.</b>

<b>England’s greatest scientists flocked to the Great Room, Burlington House, Piccadilly, London, Nov. 6, 1919.   Dyson reported.  Eddington reported.  Others commented.  Royal Society Pres. J. J. Thomson, concluding, proclaimed:  …”[this] is…one of the highest achievements of human thought.”64</b>

<b>London Times, Nov. 7, 1919, headline: “Revolution in Science. New Theory of the Universe. Newton’s Ideas Overthrown.” Similar headlines, with Einstein’s photo, emblazoned newspapers worldwide and helped make Einstein an instant hero.65</b>

<b>Did this hero worship come from public relief that long, bloody, devastating WW I was over? that God, morality, good will, peace on earth—which many thought had died in the trenches–were restored?</b>

<b>With peace came news that Einstein, an anti-war German-born Swiss citizen, had discovered something new about the universe. His discovery was confirmed by photos taken by an English Quaker pacifist scientist.  WW I hatred was replaced by peaceful international scientific cooperation–temporarily.</b>

<b>Albert, amazed at the adulation, called the newspaper accounts “amusing feats of imagination.” The war-weary public, wanting someone to idolize and lionize, embraced this stunned, sad-eyed, long-haired, absent-minded professor. What Relativity meant did not matter.  His opinion was asked about everything under the sun. His disarming, witty replies, widely reported, brought smiles.  Elsa Einstein loved the attention.</b>

<b>The Nobel Prize in Physics committee, embarrassed for by-passing Einstein since 1910, awarded Albert its 1921 prize, not for controversial Relativity, but for his practical 1905 photo-electric effect paper. The prize money, $32,000, went as promised to his  ex-wife Mileva Maric and their sons.66</b>

<b>Albert never understood the public adulation but he used it as a platform for his pacifist views. He publicly criticized fellow scientists who worked for Germany’s war effort in making poison gas and flame throwers.</b>

<b>He stated publicly that if even 2% of military draftees refused to serve, all war machines would grind to a halt.  Anti-Semitism, his own pacifism, and his public opposition to the early Nazis made him a marked man.</b>

<b>His books were burned as “Jewish science.” A price was put on his head dead or alive.  His Berlin bank funds were blocked. His country home at Carputh near Berlin was ransacked. He fled to the U.S., worked at the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, N.J., 22 years, from 1933 to his death.</b>

<b>Hitler’s atrocities modified Einstein’s pacifism.  Other refugee European physicists told Einstein that Nazi scientists were close to splitting the uranium atom to make a devastating bomb.   His Aug. 2, 1939, letter warning Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt of the catastrophic danger, along with pressure from British intelligence, led to the Manhattan Project and the atomic bomb.67</b>

<b>Learning of the atom bombs dropped on Japan to end WWII, Einstein regretted having been involved.  Still seeking a unified theory to explain everything, still searching to know the mind of God, still scribbling formulas on paper, he died of a burst stomach aneurysm in Princeton Hospital, N.J., April 18, 1955, age 76.68</b>

<b>Why Einstein? What spurred his early efforts to 1905 to explain the mysteries of the universe, nearly alone, without academic connections, or collegues’ help, or library access?</b>

<b>Curiosity was his spur: stick-to-itiveness, self-confidence, an insatiable drive to discover how God works through nature.  Life’s hurts faded in comparison: teachers who said he would never amount to much; Zurich Polytechnic professors who put him down; prejudice which kept him jobless, illegitimate child, failed marriage, his own shortcomings as husband and father.</b>

<b>Galileo taught him that all planets and objects move, every event occurs, relative to an observer’s frame of reference.</b>

<b>Isaac Newton’s law of gravity taught him that stars and planets, according to size/mass, exert a gravitational “pull” on each other.</b>

<b>Michael Faraday’s (1791-1867) electromagnetism, on which his father and uncle’s electric business was based, led Albert to Scottish James Clerk Maxwell.</b>

<b>Maxwell’s mathematical proof that light at 186,000 miles per second is the visible form of Faraday’s electromagnetism, sparked his probing thought experiments.</b>

<b>A workman falling off a roof, a falling elevator full of people, all weightless in free fall, like heavenly planets, carry spacetime with them.  Spacetime is Newton’s gravity. Spacetime bends light around a large mass.</b>

<b>Einstein’s E=mc2 founded modern cosmology.  It encouraged scientists to search for the origin of the universe, the beginning of spacetime in the Big Bang 13.7 billion year ago, filling our expanding universe, bursting constantly from our sun and other suns in other  galaxies.</b>

<b>Einstein’s E=mc2 gave us nuclear energy for industry and electricity. Nuclear power lights 80% of France, including its Eiffel Tower.</b>

<b>Einstein’s genius, Walter Isaacson concluded, was his imagination guided by faith in nature’s unity.</b>

<b>Young Einstein rebelled against the status quo to give us a new view of the universe.  Old Einstein resisted Quantum Physics, which he helped found, because its followers denied certainty in nature, believed probabilities are all we can rely on.  Einstein said, Nature’s God, ” does not play dice.”</b>

<b>How did he do it—usher in our modern age; this rare, bright, nonconformist rebel?  He was the right person at the right place at the right time.  Will we ever see his like again?</b>

<b>We enjoyed doing this review.  Thank you for being here.
</b>

<b>References Below Include: 1-Books Read by Authors, 2-Footnotes (with added material omitted above due to time limitation) , 3-Best Albert Einstein Internet Sources, 4-About the Authors:</b>

<b>Books Examine by Authors</b>

<b>1. Aczel, Amir D. S. <i>God’s Equation: Einstein, Relativity, and the Expanding Universe</i>. NY: Four Walls Eight Windows, 1999.</b>

<b>2. Bodanis, David. <i>E=mc2: A Biography of the World’s Most Famous Equation</i>. NY: Walker &amp; Co., 2000.</b>

<b>3. Caliprice, Alice, Editor. <i>Dear Professor Einstein</i>. Foreword by Evelyn Einstein.  Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2002. Children’s letters to and from Einstein.</b>

<b>4. Clark, Ronald W. <i>Einstein: The Life and Times</i>. NY: World Publishing Co., 1956.</b>

<b>5. Cwiklik, Robert. <i>Albert Einstein and the Theory of Relativity</i>. Hauppauge, NY: Barron’s Educational Series. Profiles in science for young people, ages 12-13.</b>

<b>6. Hoffman, Banesh, with Collaboration of Helen Dukas. <i>Albert Einstein, Creator and Rebel</i>. NY: Viking Press, 1972.</b>

<b>7. Ireland, Karin. <i>Albert Einstein</i>. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Silver Burdett Press, 1989.</b>

<b>8. Isaacson, Walter. <i>Einstein, His Life and Universe</i>. NY: Simon &amp; Schuster, 2007.</b>

<b>9. Lakin, Patricia. <i>Albert Einstein, Genius of the Twentieth Century</i>. NY: Aladdin, 2005.</b>

<b>10. Overbye, Dennis. <i>Einstein in Love: A Scientific Romance.</i> NY: Penguin Books, 2000.</b>

<b>11. Parker, Barry. <i>Einstein’s Brainchild, Relativity Made Easy</i>. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2000.</b>

<b>12. Schwartz, Joseph and Michael McGinness. <i>E=MC2: Einstein for Beginners</i>. NY: Pantheon Books, 1979.</b>

<b>13. White, Michael and John Gribbin. Einstein, <i>A Life in Science</i></b><b>. NY: Penguin, 1993.</b>

<b>14. Zackheim, Michele. <i>Einstein’s Daughter, The Search for Lieserl</i>. NY: Penguin Putnam, 1999.</b>

<b>Footnotes</b>

<b>1. Authors Franklin and Betty J. Parker wanted to review this Einstein biography because Einstein’s theories were central in Stephen Hawking, <i>A Briefer History of Time</i>, 2005, which we reviewed, April 18, 2007. In that review we realized that although Einstein is an acknowledged science genius, few know of his troubled life, even fewer know how he changed our view of the universe. Our aim is to clarify his life and his enormous contributions. Our Hawking review can be accessed at:</b>

<b>http://www.toadfire.com/blog_full.jsp?blogID=3469
or:    http://bfparker.blog.co.uk/2007/01/15/universe_big_bang_black_holes_dialogue_o~1556047  or:http://bfparker.blog.co.uk/2007/01/15/universe_big_bang_black_holes_dialogue_o%7E1556047</b>

<b>Isaacson’s Acknowledgement credits experts who checked his book’s accuracy, including several editors of Einstein’s papers and some 10 prominent physicists and science historians. See Isaacson, pp. xv-xviii,</b>

<b>2. Interviewed on Dec. 7, 1999, Isaacson told why the then editors, previous editors, and consulting historians chose Albert Einstein as Person of the 20th Century. For Isaacson’s discussion of Einstein’s importance and Einstein’s views on God, see:
http://www.time.com/time/community/transcripts/1999/122799isaacson.html</b>

<b>3. For description of Aspen Institute, Washington, D.C., leadership discussion group with world-wide connections, see:
http://www.aspeninstitute.org/site/c.huLWjeMRKpH/b.4939471</b>

<b>4. For book reviews of Jürgen Neffe, <i>Einstein: A Biography</i>. NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2007 (with some comparisons to Walter Isaacson’s 2007 Einstein biography), see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=J%C3%BCrgen+Neffe%2C+Einstein%2C+reviews&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
&lt;http://www.google.com/search?q=J%C3%BCrgen+Neffe%2C+Einstein%2C+reviews&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>5. For 2008 Albert Einstein film projects, see: http://search.curryguide.com/execute/search/nph-web.cgi?query=Albert+Einstein%2C+film+rights&amp;x=20&amp;y=7&amp;ac=pandia&amp;adbg=ffffff&amp;intprom=s&amp;where=</b>

<b>6. For Albert Einstein’s parents, see Isaacson, Chap. Two,
and:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Albert+Einstein’s+parents&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Albert+Einstein%27s+parents&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>7. For Thomas Edison’s (1847-1931) Pearl Street generator station, lower Manhattan, New York City, which first electrified a square mile of NYC buildings on Sept. 4, 1882,
see:
http://search.curryguide.com/execute/search/nph-web.cgi?query=Edison%2C+Pearl+Street%2C+Manhattan%2C+NYC&amp;x=16&amp;y=7&amp;ac=pandia&amp;adbg=ffffff&amp;intprom=s&amp;where=
and:
http://search.curryguide.com/execute/search/nph-web.cgi?query=Edison%2C+Pearl+Street%2C+Manhattan%2C+NYC&amp;x=16&amp;y=7&amp;ac=pandia&amp;adbg=ffffff&amp;intprom=s&amp;where=
and:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Thomas+Edison%2C+Pearl+Street%2C+Manhattan%2C+NYC&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and
http://www.google.com/search?q=Thomas+Edison%2C+Pearl+Street%2C+Manhattan%2C+NYC&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>8. For “Einstein, deformed as baby” and as a late talker,
see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+believed+deform+as+baby&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US23
and
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+believed+deform+as+baby&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>One account has little Albert saying for the first time at a meal, “The soup is too hot.” His relieved parents asked, “Why haven’t you spoken like this before?” His alleged reply was, “So far everything has been in order.”</b>

<b>9. Marie (called Maja) Einstein (1881-1951) and Albert were close all their lives. She later earned a doctorate in Romance Languages, University of Bern, Switzerland, 1909; married Paul Winteler, 1910; moved with him near Florence, Italy; fled to the U.S. in 1939 to escape persecution of Jews in Italy (husband Paul Winteler could not enter the U.S. for health reasons); and lived with her brother Albert Einstein on 112 Mercer Street, Princeton, NJ, until her death at age 70, June 25, 1951. For her writing on her brother Albert’s boyhood,
see:
http://books.google.com/books?id=dYpwdLWNR2cC&amp;pg=PR15&amp;lpg=PR15&amp;dq=Maja+Winteler-Einstein,+Albert+Einstein&amp;source=web&amp;ots=BWjdGz7UTt&amp;sig=boQnK9ICSMx2xYBzwogQUijXYbU
and:
http://books.google.com/books?id=dYpwdLWNR2cC&amp;pg=PR15&amp;lpg=PR15&amp;dq=Maja+Winteler-Einstein,+Albert+Einstein&amp;source=web&amp;ots=BWjdGz7UTt&amp;sig=boQnK9ICSMx2xYBzwogQUijXYbU</b>

<b>For more on sister Maja and Albert’s younger years, see:
http://www.einstein-website.de/biographies/einsteinmaja_content.html
and many entries under “Maja Winteler-Einstein—Einstein, Albert” at:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Maja+Winteler-Einstein%2C+Albert+Einstein&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>10. For Einstein age 4, ill, “Einstein, compass”…hidden behind things,” see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+compass&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>11. For “Einstein as a boy disliking a Prussian-style military parade,” see: Isaacson, p. 21, and:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+boy%2C+military+parade&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>12. For “…he’ll never make a success,” see Clark, p. 10. For “primary teachers as sergeants” see Isaacson, p. 21. On the later scientific value of his slowness as a boy, Einstein wrote: …”that his slow development and backwardness aided him in developing his theories. The normal adult never thinks about space and time. These are thoughts that he has thought about when he was a child. But since my intellectual development was retarded, as a result of which I began to wonder about space and time only when I had already grown up. Naturally, I could go deeper into the problem than a child with normal abilities.”
Sources:
http://www.jewishmag.com/59mag/einstein/einstein.htm
and:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+school%2C+He+will+never+amount+to+much.&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234&amp;aq=t</b>

<b>13. Isaacson, pp. 17-18.</b>

<b>14. On Talmey: It was an old Jewish custom to invite a poor student to family meals, as depicted in Sholem Aleichim’s (1859-1916) Fiddler on the Roof (film) when milkman Teyve invites the traveling university student to a Friday evening meal. See: Isaacson, pp. 18, 19-20, 23, 82, 294-295; and
http://www.chem.harvard.edu/herschbach/Einstein_Student.pdf</b>

<b>15. Aaron Bernstein (1812-84), People’s Books on Natural Science. Born Max Talmud (Talmud means instruction or the authoritative body of Jewish tradition), his name was changed to Max Talmey when he immigrated to the U.S.</b>

<b>16. Max Talmey, Relativity Theory Simplified and the Formative Period of its Inventor, With an Introduction by George B. Pegram, 1932. Talmud gave Albert a book titled Force and Matter, never imagining that years later Einstein would publish theories of relativity, show that matter could be turned into energy, give the world the famous formula, E =mc2, connect spacetime as one entity, and show that Newton’s gravity was really curved spacetime.</b>

<b>17. For many entries on “Einstein, Talmey,”
see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Talmey&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>18. Albert left Munich for Pavia, Italy, Dec. 29, 1894.</b>

<b>19. Called Zurich Polytechnic College in this paper for clarity it was founded in 1854, opened in 1855 as Swiss Federation of Technology, known familiarly as ETH, its German abbreviation. It has always been highly ranked academically with 21 Nobel Laureates associated with it as students or faculty. Albert’s first born son Hans Albert Einstein (1904-73) also attended ETH and received his Ph.D. in technical sciences there in 1936. See: Fox &amp; Keck, pp. 49-52;
and:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ETH_Zurich</b>

<b>20. Gustav Maier was the family friend who got Einstein the age waiver to take his first Zurich Polytechnic entrance exam. Maier’s banking firm in Ulm, Germany, had been located on the same street as Einstein’s grandfather’s featherbed factory.
See:
http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E02E2DB123BF937A25751COA962948260&amp;sec=health&amp;spon=&amp;pagewanted=print
http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E02E2DB123BF937A25751COA962948260&amp;sec=health&amp;spon=&amp;pagewanted=print</b>

<b>21. Einstein’s first (failed) entrance exam dates were Oct. 8-14, 1895.</b>

<b>22. Pestalozzi’s world wide influence included John Dewey’s (1859-1952) U.S. child-centered progressive school movement.</b>

<b>23. Einstein added to this thought question (at age 16): …”Of course, such a thing is impossible.” Isaacson, p. 26.</b>

<b>24. Jost Winteler (1846-1929) was school principal and history and Greek professor. Another Winteler daughter Anna later married Albert’s close friend Micheleangelo Besso. The Winteler son, Paul, later married Albert’s sister Maja, forming a life-long Einstein-Winteler connection.</b>

<b>25. For many entries on “Einstein, Winteler,”
see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Winteler&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234 &lt;http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Winteler&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234&gt;</b>

<b>26. Einstein’s essay on his future plans was written in faulty French. See: Isaacson, p. 31.</b>

<b>27. For entries on Prof. Heinrich Weber, see
(1): http://www-history.mcs.standrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Weber_Heinrich.html</b>

<b>(2): http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Heinrich+Weber&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
&lt;http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Heinrich+Weber&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234&gt;</b>

<b>28. For “Einstein, Marie Winteler,” her despondency, breakdown, and recovery after Einstein broke off their romance, and on her later marriage and life,
see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Marie+Winteler&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Marie+Winteler&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>29. Albert called Mileva “Dollie”; she called him “Johnnie.” See Isaacson index for many entries under Maric, Mileva. For other entries under “Einstein, Mileva Maric:”
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Mileva+Maric&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Mileva+Maric&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>For New York Times articles on Mileva Maric:
http://query.nytimes.com/search/query?frow=0&amp;n=10&amp;srcht=s&amp;query=Mileva+Maric&amp;srchst=nyt&amp;submit.x=34&amp;submit.y=13&amp;submit=sub&amp;hdlquery=&amp;bylquery=&amp;daterange=full&amp;mon1=01&amp;day1=01&amp;year1=1981&amp;mon2=02&amp;day2=11&amp;year2=2008
and: http://query.nytimes.com/search/query?frow=0&amp;n=10&amp;srcht=s&amp;query=Mileva+Maric&amp;srchst=nyt&amp;submit.x=34&amp;submit.y=13&amp;submit=sub&amp;hdlquery=&amp;bylquery=&amp;daterange=full&amp;mon1=01&amp;day1=01&amp;year1=1981&amp;mon2=02&amp;da</b>

<b>(3) Also from New York Times on Mileva Maric:
http://query.nytimes.com/search/query?query=Mileva+Maric&amp;srchst=g&amp;submit.x=12&amp;submit.y=9
and: http://query.nytimes.com/search/query?query=Mileva+Maric&amp;srchst=g&amp;submit.x=12&amp;submit.y=9</b>

<b>30. Isaacson, p. 42.</b>

<b>31. Ibid., p. 34.</b>

<b>32. Ibid., p. 35. Einstein ignored Prof. Jean Pernet’s lab instructions, caused a lab explosion, which injured Einstein’s right hand.</b>

<b>33. Ibid., p. 35. Math Prof. Minkowski later remarked that Einstein was: Q “…a lazy dog [who] never bothers about mathematics at all.” Ironically in 1907, 7 years after Albert graduated from Zurich Polytechnic, Prof. Minkowski developed the mathematical framework that made Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity more acceptable to scientists. Prof Minkowski said sometime after 1905: “For me [Einstein's work] came as a tremendous surprise… for in his student days Einstein had been a lazy sluggard [Faulpelz]. He never bothered about mathematics at all.”
See:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Minkowki</b>

<b>34. Micheleangelo Besso (1873-1955), a mechanical engineer, 6 years older than Einstein, was Einstein’s lifelong friend, a sounding board for Einstein’s ideas, and acted as an elder brother in Einstein’s troubled marriage to and divorce from Mileva Maric. Besso and his wife Anna née Winteler Besso also helped care for the Einstein’s two sons.</b>

<b>Einstein and Besso both played the violin and had similar science interests. They met while Einstein boarded with Aarau Cantonal high school’s principal Jost Winteler whose older daughter Anna Lee married Besso in 1898. The Bessos moved to Milan, Italy, where he was an electrical society’s consultant until Einstein, then working at the Bern Swiss Patent Office, knowing of a vacancy, urged Besso to successfully apply.</b>

<b>Reflecting on Besso’s death shortly before Einstein’s own death (April 18, 1955), he wrote to Besso’s son and wife, marveling that Besso had lived so long and happily in harmony with his wife, “an undertaking in which I twice failed rather miserably.” Isaacson, p. 540.</b>

<b>35. Marcel Grossmann, whose father owned a factory near Zurich, later helped Einstein in two turning points of his life; first, by persuading his father to speak to the Swiss Patent Office director about Einstein’s abilities and need for a job. This led to Einstein’s Patent Office job during1902-09. Secondly, then math Prof. Marcel Grossman taught Einstein during 1911-12 (both then taught at Zurich Polytechnic) the special math for curved space Einstein needed for his 1915 General Theory of Relativity. For many entries on “Einstein, Marcel Grossmann,
see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Marcel+Grossmann&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Marcel+Grossmann&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>36. Albert Einstein’s final exam score at Zurich Polytechnic was 4.9 out of 6, allowing him to graduate with a Diploma on July 28, 1900. Mileva’s Maric’s failing score was 4 out of 6. Source: White &amp; Gribble pp. 40, 49.</b>

<b>37. Isaacson, p. 61 and:
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/einstein/bodanis.html</b>

<b>38. Shortened letter from full versions in: Overbye, p. 72, and
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/einstein/bodanis.html</b>

<b>39. Neither Marie Winteler nor Mileva Maric were Jewish.</b>

<b>40. For scholarly investigation of Albert Einstein-Mileva Mirac’s love child, see: Michele Zackheim. Einstein’s Daughter, The Search for Lieserl. NY: Penguin Putnam, 1999. See also Isaacson, p. 66.</b>

<b>41. Isaacson, Chap. 4, “The Lovers, ” especially p. 66.</b>

<b>42. Ibid. Mileva Maric’s close friend in Serbia was Helene Kaufler Savic. See: Zackheim’s book.</b>

<b>43. Isaacson, Chap 4. For a photo of Einstein and two “Olympia Academy” students, Conrad Habicht (1876-1958) and Maurice Solovine (1875-1958),
see:
http://www.einstein-website.de/z_biography-e.html</b>

<b>44. These self-named Olympia Academy avant garde rebels read and discussed classics, including philosophers Spinoza on God in nature and David Hume (1711-76) on skepticism. They discussed scientists Austrian physicist Ernst Mach (1838-1916), French mathematician Henri Poincaré (1854-1912), both of whose works influenced Albert’s relativity theories of 1905 and 1915. Isaacson, pp. 79-84, lists other authors and books read by Olympia Academy students.</b>

<b>45. Marcel Grossman first told Einstein of the possible Swiss Patent Office position at Bern in April 1901. Einstein applied for the post in Dec. 1901, was offered the post on June 16, 1902, and started work there on June 23, 1902. His job was confirmed as permanent on Sept. 1904. He was promoted to Technical Expert Second Class on April 1, 1906. He resigned July 6, 1909, to become University of Zurich physics professor. For many entries on “Einstein, Patent Office, Bern, Switzerland,”
see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Patent+Office%2C+Bern%2C+Switzerland&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and: http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Patent+Office%2C+Bern%2C+Switzerland&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>46. For entries on “Einstein, Patent Office, Bern,”
see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Patent+Office%2C+Bern&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and: http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Patent+Office%2C+Bern&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and:
http://www.einsteinyear.org/facts/timeline</b>

<b>47. Albert Einstein’s first son, Hans Albert Einstein, born May 14, 1904, who died in 1973, is mentioned in Footnote 19 above.</b>

<b>48. First 1905 photo electric effect paper: Albert Einstein, “On a Heuristic [i.e., Hypothetical] Point of View Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light,” Annalen der Physik, Vol. 17 (June 9, 1905), pp. 132-148. For details of all Einstein 1905 “Miracle Year” published writings,
see:
http://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/2509_Einstein_1905.html
http://www.pitt.edu/%7Ejdnorton/teaching/2509_Einstein_1905.html
and:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+1905%2C+Miracle+Year&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+1905%2C+Miracle+Year&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>49. Second 1905 “Brownian Movement” paper: Albert Einstein, “On the Movement of Small Particles Suspended in Stationary Liquids Required by the Molecular-Kinetic Theory of Heat,” Annalen der Physik, Vol. 17 (July 18, 1905), pp. 549-560.</b>

<b>50. Third 1905 Special Relativity paper: Albert Einstein, “On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies,” Annalen der Physik (Annals of Physics, Vol. 17 (Sept. 26, 1905), pp. 891-921.</b>

<b>When Einstein finished his Special Relativity paper he gave his 31 scribbled pages to wife Mileva Maric to check for math errors and fell exhausted into bed. The background and Einstein’s thought processes on this third Special Relativity paper are explained in Overbye, Chap. 10; in Isaacson, Chapters 5 and 6;
And:
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/einstein/kaku.html</b>

<b>51. For many entries on “Einstein, E=MC2,”
see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+E%3DMC2&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and: http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+E%3DMC2&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>52. Isaacson, p. 140.</b>

<b>53. Few before Einstein made such imaginative leaps. The mystery is how–mostly alone by reading, study, and thought experiment–during 10 hectic troubled years ages 16 to 26, Einstein took insights from earlier scientists’ findings and put them together in remarkable ways in his 1905 papers.</b>

<b>We may never know the sources of Einstein’s rare intelligence, genius, boldness to be, do, and think differently. His father had a markedly careful way of looking at things from every possible angle. His mother was independent and determined. His Jewish heritage may account for his reverence for an all-knowing God who works through nature’s wonders.  His early troubled life, the temper of his time, his minority status as a Jew among Christians may all have spurred his drive for thinking about and determination to account for nature’s wonders.</b>

<b>54. Einstein’s University of Zurich Ph.D. Dissertation (1905): “A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions,” 1905, Annalen der Physik, 19 (1906), pp. 289-305, is his least impressive but most cited Einstein publication because of its usefulness. It deals simply with how sugar particles are suspended in a fluid, but has been surprisingly applicable to the way sand particles get stirred up in cement mixers, the properties of cow’s milk, and the way fine particles of dust and droplets of liquid (aerosols) are suspended in clouds.
Source:
http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg14019054.400-the-everyday-world-of-einstein-what-did-albert-want-with-acup-of-sweet-coffee-a-cement-mixer-and-a-dirty-cloud-.html
and:
http://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/2509_Einstein_1905.html
and:
http://www.pitt.edu/%7Ejdnorton/teaching/2509_Einstein_1905.html</b>

<b>55. The “few” students attending Einstein’s early morning University of Bern lectures included his friend Michele Besso and his sister Maja, then studying for the University of Zurich Ph.D. in Romance Languages. White &amp; Gribble, p. 75.</b>

<b>56. University of Berlin physicist Max Planck, 21 years older, was Einstein’s father figure. Planck’s assistant Max von Lau became Einstein’s helpful friend. Planck was the first leading physicist to accept and soon lecture on Einstein’s relativity theory. As Annalen der Physik editor Planck published Einstein’s 1905 papers (also earlier and later papers).</b>

<b>University of Berlin Profs. Planck and Walther Nernst (1864-1941), both went in person to persuade Einstein to work in Berlin (1914-33).  Unlike Newton and James C. Maxwell, who saw light as a wave, Planck was the first to consider light as rapidly moving discrete particles, an idea which Einstein incorporated in his 1905 photo-electric effect paper.  Planck met with Hitler to argue, unsuccessfully, that the Nazi campaign against the Jews hurt German science. Planck’s son was killed by the Gestapo in 1944 for being involved in an unsuccessful Hitler assassination plot. Source: Fox &amp; Keck, pp. 216-219.</b>

<b>57. Einstein’s sickly second son Eduard Einstein (1910-65) was diagnosed with schizophrenia in 1930 and died at age 55 in a Zurich mental asylum. As caretaker, his mother Mileva Maric Einstein bore most of the emotional burden, often helped by the Bessos, while Einstein paid the financial cost.</b>

<b>58. Einstein first met at the First Solvay Science Conference, Brussels, Belgium, Oct. 1911, such world renown scientists as France’s Marie Curie, French mathematician Jules Henri Poincaré (1854-1912), Germany’s Max Planck, New Zealand born Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937), and Dutch physicist Henrik A. Lorentz (1853-1928).</b>

<b>Of Einstein’s relativity theory Planck wrote: “If Einstein’s theory should prove to be correct, as I expect it will, he will be considered the Copernicus of the twentieth century.” Source: Aczel, p. 27.</b>

<b>Asked to evaluate Einstein as possible Zurich Polytechnic physics professor, Marie Curie wrote: “I much admire the work which Einstein has published…and think…his work as being in the first rank.”</b>

<b>In this same connection J.H. Poincaré wrote of Albert: “The future will show more and more, the worth of Einstein, and the university which is able to capture this young master is certain of gaining much honour from the operation.” White &amp; Gribble, p. 109 and Isaacson, pp.168-171.</b>

<b>59. In Berlin during 1914-33 Einstein was also a member of the Prussian Academy of Science and directed research at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute. For many entries on “Einstein, University of Berlin,”
see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+University+of+Berlin&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+University+of+Berlin&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>60. For Einstein’s “living conditions” instructions to his first wife Mileva Maric and of his affairs with other women,
see: http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/einstein/life/family.php</b>

<b>61. Elsa Einstein married textile trader Max Lowenthal (1864-1914) in 1896 and divorced him in 1908. For Elsa Einstein biography, see: http://www.einstein-website.de/biographies/einsteinelsa.html</b>

<b>62. An abortive attempt was made to photo-test a summer 1914 eclipse for Einstein best seen in the Crimea, Russia by Berlin’s Royal Prussian Observatory assistant Erwin Freundlich (1885-1964). Freundlich got to the Crimea with photo equipment just as World War I erupted, was captured as a spy, and was luckily released in an exchange of prisoners. This failed attempt strangely helped Albert for he had made a mistake in math so that his degrees of arc of bent-light was slightly off. Had this abortive photo expedition been successful his General Relativity Theory might have been discredited. See: Isaacson, index under Freundlich, Erwin Finlay.</b>

<b>63. Because of WW I communications disruption Einstein sent his 1915 General Relativity paper to University of Leyden (Netherlands) astronomy Prof. Willem de Sitter (1872-1935), who forwarded it via Finland to England’s Cambridge University astronomer Arthur Stanley Eddington (1882-1944). Eddington, soon a convinced relativity believer, helped prove Einstein’s General Relativity theory true in a 1919 eclipse, resulting in Einstein’s near-instant world fame. Source: Clark, pp. 208-09f. For “Einstein, Eddington” entries,
see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Eddington&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Eddington&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>64. For entries on the startling results of “Einstein, 1919 eclipse,”
see: Bodanis interview in:
http://www.panmacmillan.com/interviews/displayPage.asp?PageID=3365
and:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+1919+eclipse&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+1919+eclipse&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>65. Ibid., for headline news coverage of “Einstein, 1919 eclipse.”</b>

<b>66. Nominated annually since 1910 for the Nobel Prize for Physics, Einstein’s selection was bypassed because the selection committee thought his relativity theories might be wrong and by anti-Jewish prejudice, led by former (1905) Nobel Physics Prize winner Philipp A. Lenard (1862-1947), a virulent anti-Semite and later dedicated Nazi.</b>

<b>Einstein’s Nobel Prize selection was also delayed after 1919 photo eclipse proof of his relativity theory because it contradicted over 200 years of Newtonian physics. No physics prize was given in 1921, allowing the committee to compromise, giving the 1922 prize to Danish physicist Niels H.D. Bohr (1885-1962) and the 1921 prize to Einstein, not for his still controversial relativity theories, but for his practical 1905 photoelectric effect theory.</b>

<b>knowing that Einstein planned a lecture tour in Japan, University of Berlin friend Max von Laue alerted Einstein about a special honor in December 1922 but Einstein, annoyed at the long delay and showing indifference, went on to Japan.</b>

<b>Diplomats had to sort out the protocol problem: German ambassador to Sweden Rudolf Nadolny accepted the Nobel Prize for Einstein, the Swedish ambassador to Germany handed Einstein the Nobel medal on his return to Japan, and Einstein, ignoring the fact that he had been awarded the prize for his photo electric effect theory, instead gave his Nobel speech, July 1923 on relativity. Sources: White &amp; Gribbin, pp. 100, 125, 165-166, 179-180. Fox &amp;Keck, pp. 190-195.</b>

<b>For entries on “Einstein, Nobel Prize for Physics for 1921″   and for “Einstein, Rudolf Nadolny,”
see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Rudolf+Nadolny&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and:
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234&amp;q=Einstein%2C+Noble+Prize+in+Physics+for+1921&amp;btnG=Search
and:
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234&amp;q=Einstein%2C+Noble+Prize+in+Physics+for+1921&amp;btnG=Search</b>

<b>67. For entries on “Einstein, Atom Bomb,
see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+atom+bomb&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and: http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+atom+bomb&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>68. For key Einstein events in the U.S., 1933-55, 22 years:</b>

<b>(1) Einstein’s first U.S. visit, April 2-May 30, 1921, with Zionist leader Chaim Weizmann (1874-1952, Russian-born, British subject) to raise funds for what is now Hebrew University of Jerusalem (which still benefits from owning his papers and has commercial copyright use of his name). Einstein was given a hero’s welcome in NYC and lectured in Washington, D.C. and Cleveland, Ohio.</b>

<b>(2) He returned to the U.S. briefly in 1931 to lecture at California Institute of Technology (Caltech), visited Hollywood, CA, where he was cheered as a rock star when he appeared with Charlie Chaplin (1889-1977) at the opening of Chaplin’s City Lights film. When Einstein asked what the cheering meant, Chaplin replied: they cheer me because they all understand me; they cheer you because no one understands you. For entries for “Einstein, Millikan, Caltech,
see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Millikan%2C+Caltech&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>(3) Why Einstein worked at the Institute of Advanced Study, Princeton, NJ, 1933 to his death in 1955, 22 years:  About 1929 wealthy Newark, NJ, department store owner Louis Bamberger (1855-1944) and his sister Caroline née Bamberger Fuld asked educator and philanthropic foundation executive Abraham Flexner’s (1866-1959) advice on the best use of a $5 million philanthropic gift.</b>

<b>Flexner urged them to create an Institute for Advanced Study where eminent scholars free from lecturing and other duties could explore new knowledge. The idea was modeled on Kaiser Wilhelm II Institutes some 20 years earlier (Einstein headed the one in Berlin during 1917-33). Practical results from these research institutes helped make Germany a world leader in industries related to chemistry and science.</b>

<b>Flexner, who would later site his Institute for Advanced Studies in Princeton, NJ (near but independent of Princeton University), was in Pasadena, CA, early 1932, to confer with California Institute of California (Caltech) chief scientist Robert Millikan (1868-1953) about recruiting European and U.S. scientists. Millikan told Flexner to speak to Einstein then at Caltech.</b>

<b>Einstein, then on his second annual short term Caltech lecturing visit (during 1931, 1932, 1933), became interested in Flexner’s Institute for Advanced Study. They talked again in Oxford, England, late spring, 1932; and again two months later at Einstein’s summer home in Carputh near Berlin. Einstein agreed to join the Institute for Advanced Study initially for 6 months.</b>

<b>In December 1932, to escape Hitler’s holocaust (Hitler became Chancellor of Germany Jan. 30 1933), Einstein fled Germany to work at the Institute for Advance Study, Princeton, NJ. He lived nearby at 112 Mercer Street, became a U.S. citizen (while retaining Swiss citizenship) on Oct. 30, 1940, and died in 1955.</b>

<b>For entries on “Einstein, Flexner,”see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Flexner&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Flexner&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>For Franklin &amp; Betty Parker, “Abraham and Simon Flexner, Medical Education Reformers,” access any one of the following 3 blogs:
http://bfparker.sulekha.com/blog/post/2007/06/abraham-and-simon-flexner-medical-education-reformers.htm
(or): http://bfparker.mindsay.com/abraham_and_simon_flexner_medical_education_reformersby_franklinbetty_parker.mws
(or):  http://bfparker.shoutpost.com/archives/2007/June</b>

<b>(4) Einstein’s Aug. 2, 1939 letter to Pres. F.D. Roosevelt warning of Nazi’s atom bomb progress: Einstein in Princeton, N.J., first heard in late 1938 from Danish physicist Niels Bohr (1885-1962) that German scientists were nearing success in splitting the uranium atom and making a bomb of unimaginable destruction.</b>

<b>This information was confirmed to Einstein in mid July 1939 while on vacation in long Island, NY, by visiting Jewish physicist Leo Szilard (1898-1964), who had also fled Nazi Germany to the U.S. Szilard and another physicist drafted and prevailed on Einstein to sign a letter to Pres. Roosevelt, Aug. 2, 1939, warning him of the danger</b>

<b>The letter and attending reports on it languished in U.S. bureaucratic files until Pearl Harbor when British intelligence, which knew of the danger, pressured the U.S. military to create the secret Manhattan Project leading to the U.S. atom bombs dropped on Japan that ended WW II.</b>

<b>See footnote 67 for entries on “Einstein, Atom Bomb.” See indexes under “Roosevelt, Franklin” in Overbye, Fox &amp; Keck (especially pp. 9-14), White &amp; Gribbon, Clark, Hoffmann, Isaacson. For entries on “Einstein, Roosevelt,”
see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Roosevelt&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Roosevelt&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>Best Albert Einstein Internet Sources</b>

<b>1. “Albert Einstein, 1879-1955.” Library of Congress, many entries on 10 pp.:
http://search.loc.gov:8765/query.html?col=loc&amp;qt=Alfred+Einstein&amp;qp=url%3A%2Frr%2F+url%3A%2Fcfbook%2Furl%3A%2Fpoetry%2F+url%3A%2Ffolklife%2F&amp;submit.x=13&amp;submit.y=13</b>

<b>2. Albert Einstein, 1879-1955.” 39 clips of film stock footage libraries:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Albert+Einstein%2C+stock+film+footage&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>3. World Year of Physics 2005: Einstein in the 21st Century:
Physics groups world-wide designated 2005 the “World Year of Physics, honoring the centennial of Einstein’s 1905 “Year of Miracles” and the 50th year since his death in 1955. Over 400 world wide celebratory events were held including conferences, museum exhibits, webcasts, plays, poetry reading, and other events.
http://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/12/opinion/12horgan.html
and
http://physics2005.org/international.html</b>

<b>4. Albert Einstein Quotes/Articles on God, Religion, Ethics and Science
http://atheism.about.com/od/einsteingodreligion/tp/EinsteinGodReligionScience.htm
and:
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&amp;ie=ISO-8859-1&amp;q=Albert+Einstein%2C+God%2C+Religion%2C+Ethics&amp;btnG=Google+Search
and
http://atheism.about.com/sitesearch.htm?terms=Albert%20Einstein&amp;SUName=atheism&amp;TopNode=2928&amp;type=1
and: http://atheism.about.com/sitesearch.htm?terms=Albert%20Einstein&amp;SUName=atheism&amp;TopNode=2928&amp;type=1
and:
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/quotes_einstein.html</b>

<b>5. Albert Einstein Quotes (general): http://quotations.about.com/od/stillmorefamouspeople/a/AlbertEinstein2.htm</b>

<b>6. Albert Albert Quotes with sources and links to his life and contributions):
http://everything2.com/index.pl</b>

<b>7. Albert Einstein photographs:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+photos&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and:&lt;
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+photos&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>8. For Einstein books, articles, photos, and archival finding aids: http://www.aip.org/servlet/plainHistory?collection=HISTORY&amp;queryText=Albert+Einstein&amp;SEARCH+BUTTON.x=18&amp;SEARCH+BUTTON.y=7
and: http://www.aip.org/servlet/plainHistory?collection=HISTORY&amp;queryText=Albert+Einstein&amp;SEARCH+BUTTON.x=18&amp;SEARCH+BUTTON.y=7</b>

<b>9. PBS (Public Broadcasting System, TV) entries on “Albert Einstein”: http://www.pbs.org/search/search_results.html?q=Albert+Einstein&amp;btnG.x=10&amp;btnG.y=7
and: http://www.pbs.org/search/search_results.html?q=Albert+Einstein&amp;btnG.x=10&amp;btnG.y=7</b>

<b>10. Science writers on Albert Einstein:</b>

<b>(1): John Horgan, science writing program, Stevens Institute of Technology, NJ, articles on Einstein:
http://www.google.com/search?q=John+Horgan%2C+Einstein&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234&amp;aq=t
and: http://www.google.com/search?q=John+Horgan%2C+Einstein&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234&amp;aq=t</b>

<b>(2): Books on Albert Einstein by Don Howard, History of Science, Notre Dame University:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Don+Howard%2C+Einstein&amp;sourcenavclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and
http://www.google.com/search?q=Don+Howard%2C+Einstein&amp;sourcenavclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>(3): Lee Smolin, Theoretical Physics, Pennsylvania State University, articles, books on Einstein:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Lee+Smolin%2C+Einstein&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and
http://www.google.com/search?q=Lee+Smolin%2C+Einstein&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>(4): livescience.com &lt;http://livescience.com has entries on Einstein, including “Will There Ever be Another Einstein?”:
http://www.livescience.com/strangenews/ap_050418_einstein.html</b>

<b>11. For “Einstein, Federal Bureau of Investigation” massive report, see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Federal+Bureau+of+Investigation&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and: http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Federal+Bureau+of+Investigation&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>12. For “Albert Einstein Timelines and Chronology,” see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Albert+Einstein+Timelines+and+Chronology&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and: http://www.google.com/search?q=Albert+Einstein+Timelines+and+Chronology&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>13. For About.com &lt;http://About.com&gt;  search on “Albert Einstein,” see:
http://search.about.com/fullsearch.htm?terms=Albert%20Einstein</b>

<b>14. For entries on “Albert Einstein death,”
see:
http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Marie+Winteler&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234
and http://www.google.com/search?q=Einstein%2C+Marie+Winteler&amp;sourceid=navclient-ff&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS233US234</b>

<b>END OF REFERENCES. Email corrections, questions to: bfparker@frontiernet.net</b>

<b>About the Authors</b>

<b>1. For biographical account: “Betty &amp; Franklin Parker Looking Back Since 1946,”
access:   http://bfparker.blogster.com/betty_franklin_parker_looking.html
or: http://ourstory.com/story.html?v=10919
or: http://www.progressiveu.org/182455-betty-franklin-parker-looking-back-since-1946-57-years-of-a-good-idea-thanksgiving-2007-bfparker-frontiernet-net
or:  http://bootlog.com/index.php?cat=travelogs&amp;aut=bfparker
or: http://bootlog.com/index.php?cat=travelogs&amp;aut=bfparker</b>

<b>2. For a list of 153 of authors’ publications go to: http://www.worldcat.org
type in: Franklin Parker, 1921- and you should get the following URL:
http://www.worldcat.org/search?q=Parker%2C+Franklin%2C+1921-%2C&amp;=Search&amp;qt=results_page
or:
http://www.worldcat.org/search?q=Parker%2C+Franklin%2C+1921-%2C&amp;=Search&amp;qt=results_page</b>

<b>3. To access free E-Book full contents of Franklin Parker, <i>George Peabody, A Biography</i>. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1995 rev. edn., go to:
http://books.google.com/books?id=OPIbk-ZPnF4C&amp;dq=franklin+parker&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;source=web&amp;ots=qxV3RqTk1k&amp;sig=sXAmDL_CyCYd-Sl0n_IRl7g1S1I#PPP1,M1
or:
http://books.google.com/books?id=OPIbk-ZPnF4C&amp;dq=franklin+parker&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;source=web&amp;ots=qxV3RqTk1k&amp;sig=sXAmDL_CyCYd-Sl0n_IRl7g1S1I#PPP1,M1</b>

<b>Corrections, comments: bfparker@frontiernet.net END OF MANUSCRIPT

a

 

Betty & Franklin Parker Looking Back Since 1946; 57 Years of a Good Idea; Thanksgiving 2007, bfparker@frontiernet.net

 

Happy Thanksgiving.  We want to hear from you. We still live in Pleasant Hill, TN., but since changing to home delivery 2 years ago we have had this new address: Betty & Franklin Parker,  63 Heritage Loop, Crossville, TN 38571, E-mail: bfparker@frontiernet.net.  (Our past fuller Looking Back Christmas 2005 and 2006 messages are condensed below and updated).

 

We were children of the Great Depression, shaped by World War II upheavals.  While Betty did well in grade school and high school, Frank took electrician trade classes in his vocational high school.  During the job-scarce Depression he also took radio technician courses at FDR’s National Youth Administration residential trade school at Quoddy Village near Eastport, Maine.

 

After Pearl Harbor, at Army basic training interviews (Feb. 1942), Frank’s electrical-radio studies, recorded on IBM punched cards, probably led to his being sent to the Air Force Morse radio code school in Chicago’s Coliseum.  When voice radio replaced Morse coders, Frank was sent to the Army Airways Communications System (AACS) headquarters, which had moved in early 1943 from crowded Washington, DC, to Asheville, NC.  AACS personnel managed WWII air traffic control towers and later radar guidance systems. 

 

Frank’s job in AACS publications was to update fast-changing classified Army, Air Force, and AACS regulations guiding headquarter planners in AACS worldwide operations, 1943 to early 1946.  On discharge (Feb. 1946) Frank returned to Asheville, NC, took summer 1946 courses at what later became the Univ. of NC at Asheville, entered Berea College, Sept. 1946.  His AACS experience led him to work, among other Berea College work/study jobs, in its Library Building.

We met in Sept. 1946 at Berea College, near Lexington, Ky.  Having the same last name, taking some classes together, not wanting a nice friendship to end, we became engaged in May 1949.  Frank earned a Berea College B.A. degree in English, Aug. ’49.  In Sept. ’49 he entered the Univ. of Illinois’ (Urbana) graduate M.S. in library science program while working part time in the Univ. of Ill.’s undergraduate library.  Betty graduated from Berea in June ’50, B.A., History.  We were married June 12, ’50, in Decatur, Ala., and went together to the Univ. of Ill., where Frank finished his M.S. degree, Aug. ’50.

We taught first at Ferrum College, Va., (1950-’52) near Roanoke, which then had a Berea-like work/study program.  Betty taught high school history and English.  Frank was librarian and taught speech.   

 

We took summer 1951 and summer ’52 graduate courses at George Peabody College for Teachers (hereafter Peabody), Nashville, adjacent to Vanderbilt Univ. (they merged in 1979), remaining from Sept. 1952 through Aug. ’56 graduation.  Betty taught English in a Nashville business school, her pay a free apt. facing former Ward-Belmont School, just bought by TN Baptists, now Belmont Univ., where Frank later worked as part-time librarian and Betty was the president’s secretary and English instructor.

Four years of part-time work and graduate study at Peabody were an important turning point.  Frank’s major study under respected History and Philosophy of Education Prof. Clifton L. Hall probably led Peabody Dean of Instruction Felix C. Robb to suggest that Frank undertake a dissertation on George Peabody’s (GP, 1795-1869) philanthropy.  This Mass.-born merchant in the South, then London-based banker-broker (1838-69, J.P. Morgan’s father was GP’s partner) founded Peabody Museums at Harvard and Yale and in Salem, Mass.; Peabody Library and Conservatory of Music, Baltimore; and the multi-million dollar Peabody Education Fund (PEF, 1867-1914) to aid public schools in 11 Southern states plus W.Va.  Peabody College of Vanderbilt Univ. is the PEF’s modern descendant.

Eager for the dissertation challenge, in May-Sept. 1954 we left our part-time Nashville jobs to read GP-related papers in these libraries: in D.C.: Lib. of Cong and National Archives.  In Baltimore: Peabody Institute Library and Conservatory of Music, now part of Johns Hopkins Univ., and the  Enoch Pratt Public Library.  GP influenced both Johns Hopkins and Enoch Pratt.   In NYC: Pierpont Morgan Library.  In Salem, Mass.: Peabody Essex Museum (has most of GP’s papers and business records); GP papers in Mass. towns of Peabody, Danvers, and Boston, Mass.; then at Peabody Museums at Harvard and Yale.

For travel to London, England, where GP worked 30 years as a securities broker-banker, a Berea friend and part-time travel agent booked an inexpensive third class round trip ship berth for us.  We read GP material at  the British Library Manuscript Room and Colindale Newspaper Collection, Public Record Office, Guildhall Record Office, and Westminster Abbey (where GP’s body lay in state).  We visited Peabody Homes where over 50,000 low income Londoners live in 20,000 affordable homes.  Frank also read GP-Queen Victoria letters at Windsor Castle (she wanted to knight him but he declined, not willing to give up U.S. citizenship). 

Back in Nashville, Jan. 1955, Frank worked part-time at Peabody, Betty taught English at Belmont Univ.  Together we compiled our notes and microfilm into a “George Peabody, Founder of Modern Philanthropy” dissertation, a task hastened when Frank was invited to give the Feb. 18, 1955, Peabody Founders’ Day address (later published) to an overflow audience.  In Aug. 1956, with the dissertation completed and accepted, Betty received  the M.A. degree in English; Frank the Ed. D. degree in Education Foundations.

In late August 1956, faced with two job choices and on Betty’s urging, we declined a job offer for Frank to head an Okla. state college’s new library.  He accepted instead a teaching job at State Univ. of NY, New Paltz, with Betty teaching high school English at nearby Wallkill, NY, 1956-57.

While we were still at Peabody, Aug. 1956, the visiting Univ. of Texas dean of education interviewed Frank, who explained that we were committed to SUNY, New Paltz.  But the UT dean kept in touch, and with the dept. head’s approval hired Frank for the 1957-58 school year.  Meanwhile, Frank won a competitive Kappa Delta Pi (Education Honor Society) Fellowship in International Education to study African education in the then multi-racial Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland in British central Africa.  Informing his U. Texas employers of this fellowship, they graciously gave us leave of absence.

Africa expert Alan Pifer, then Carnegie Foundation president, helped us to join newly opened Univ. College of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (UCR&N), in what is now Harare, Zimbabwe.  We attended en route an Africanist conference at Hartford Seminary, CT; flew to London, attended a Cambridge Univ. British civil servants’ Africa conference, and reached what is now Zimbabwe via stops in Benghazi, Khartoum, Nairobi, Ndola, in what is now Zambia, and arrived in Salisbury (now Harare) and UCR&N, a multiracial university affiliated with the Univ. of London. 

By renting in turn five houses from privileged Whites on long leave in England we saw first hand wide disparity between well-off White owners and poor African servants.  Visiting many segregated White, African (mostly mission-run), and Asian schools, we soon saw that learning English as a second language was Africans’ key need in mastering other subjects.  With UCR&N backing and White-run African Education Department cooperation, we organized the first ever multiracial federation-wide conference on that subject, led by key mission and government teachers, principals, inspectors; experts on teaching methods, on writing and distributing textbooks, on training teachers, etc.  We recorded, edited, and distributed widely the conference proceedings.  Using Harare government archives we later wrote African Development and Education in Southern Rhodesia, Ohio State Univ. Press, 1960, reprinted by Greenwood Press, 1971.

Back in the U.S., Aug. 1958, we moved to Austin, TX, where Frank taught large undergraduate classes, striving for good teaching and scholarly attainment.  A U.S. Quaker family in Harare had told us of Austin’s American Friends Service Committee (AFSC) office where Betty went to work in peace education. 

Frank, active in key national societies in his teaching fields from our 7 UT-Austin years (1957-64) onward, was the History of Education Society’s national president, 1963-64; the Comparative and International Education Society’s (CIES) vice president, 1963-64, CIES Secretary, 1965-68; editor of the CIES Newsletter, 1968-86; and Southwest Philosophy of Education Society’s (SWPES) president, 1960.  At SWPES annual meetings, 1960-86, we presented original papers together in a dialogue form, all later published.

During Sept. 1961-May 1962, Frank was given U.TX.-Austin leave of absence as a Senior Fulbright Research Scholar in what is now Zambia.  After U.S. State Department orientation, Washington, DC, and U.S. Embassy in London orientation, we flew to the capital, Lusaka, were attached to nearby Rhodes-Livingstone Institute, from which we visited mission and government schools and did research in Lusaka’s national archives.  In London May 1962 we did research at the British Library and returned to Austin.  During 1962-63 Betty worked for several U-TX-Austin Bible professors and then taught in the U-TX-Austin Reading and Study Skills program

>We enjoyed the 7 busy, satisfying U-TX-Austin years (1957-64).  But in April 1964 a SWPES colleague, Univ. of Okla. in Norman, Philosophy of Education Prof. Lloyd P. Williams told Frank that he was wanted for an Excellence Fund tenured professorship.  Interviewed, accepted, with Betty’s approval, we relocated to Norman (1964-68).  Betty assisted Frank’s research and writing and was active on the League of Women Voters and regional AFSC boards.

 

In 1967, Frank’s U-Okla. dean, James G. Harlow, a prominant administrator, became president of West Va. Univ., Morgantown (WVU).  He told Frank at a farewell gathering to keep in touch.  In our fourth year at U-Okla-Norman, 1968, WVU’s Education Dean offered Frank a professorial chair funded by the Benedum Foundation.  Betty agreed that the opportunity was too good to decline.

 

Frank’s 18 years as WVU Benedum Professor of Education, 1868-1986, were the busiest in our lives.  He taught graduate classes and seminars in history and philosophy of education plus a specialty in Comparative and International Education.  Betty, though active in League of Women Voters, United Methodist Women, and a book review group, was Frank’s full partner in research, writing, and editing articles and books.  During 18 summers, free from WVU teaching, Frank taught in Canadian universities (Alberta, Newfoundland); and we traveled abroad studying schools in England, Belgium, Netherlands, Germany, Finland, USSR, Israel, China, about which we wrote books and articles.  As editor of the Comparative and International Education Society newsletter, Frank reviewed relevant education publications, teaching tools, and travel opportunities for teachers.

 

Vanderbilt University Press published Franklin Parker, George Peabody, A Biography, 1971.  During the WVU years Whitston Publishing Co. published our jointly edited 20 volume annotated bibliography series on education in various countries.  Frank wrote on U.S. education, on several African countries, and obituaries of prominent scholars for encyclopedia yearbooks: Americana Annual, Collier’s Encyclopedia Yearbook, Compton’s Yearbook, Reader’s Digest Almanac & Yearbook, Encyclopedia of Education, McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of World Biography, Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Dictionary of American Biography, and other publications.

 

After WVU retirement in 1986 Frank taught part-time at Northern AZ Univ., Flagstaff (1986-89), and Western Carolina Univ., Cullowhee, NC (1989-94), eight happy years using good university libraries for research and writing.  Frank published articles regularly in education honor society publications: Kappa Delta Pi and Phi Delta Kappa (life member of both); and in School & Society, which continued under several name changes.

 

Betty’s parents chose to live near us from 1977 for the rest of their lives, a wonderful time of sharing; in Morgantown, W.Va.; then near Flagstaff, AZ; then near Cullowhee, NC, where her Dad died in 1993.  Care needed by Betty’s mother led us to Uplands Retirement Village, Pleasant Hill, TN, where she died in 1998.   Both are buried in their hometown, Decatur, Ala.  Betty’s younger sister and her husband, Jo Ann and George Weber, moved in 1996 near Sparta, TN,  11 miles from us.

 

When we moved to Uplands, Pleasant Hill, TN, May 5, 1994, we were updating the 1971 George Peabody, A Biography, which Vanderbilt University Press reissued in 1995 as part of bicentennial celebrations of George Peabody’s birth (1795).  Working again on Peabody’s life story smoothed the transition to full retirement.  An added impetus was preparing to give several speeches about him in his birthplace in Essex County, Mass., where we spent several days in March 1995. 

 

At Uplands now over 13 years, we attend an exercise class 3 times a week, use a neighbor’s pool 6 times a week, walk as much as we can to various functions, have attended a few Elderhostels, and have every year for 13 years reviewed to an Uplands audience an important book in dialogue form.  Frank has been able to get these reviews and our other writings published in blog form.  Our current review of Walter Isaacson’s 2007 best seller on Albert Einstein will be given Apr. 21, 2008, Adshead, 10 A.M. (if you wish, we can send you a copy).

 

We end with this incident which happened in early Nov. 2007: A local yokel, often seeing us walking arm in arm, picnic lunch bags in hand, shouted from his parked battered pickup: “Grandpa, are you holding her up, or is she holding you up?”  “We lean on each other,” Frank replied with a grin.  Betty added: “If one falls, we both fall.”  We left laughing.  Fifty-seven years of a good idea.  Keep in touch.

 

For a list of 153 of our publications go to: http://www.worldcat.org     , type in: Franklin Parker, 1921-    and you should get the following URL:

 
http://www.worldcat.org/search?q=Parker%2C+Franklin%2C+1921-%2C&=Search&qt=results_page

 

For full access to 42 of our blog articles, go to: http://www.google.com     , click Search the Web, type: bfparker@frontiernet.net   , hit Search, and you should get the following URL:

http://www.google.com/custom?domains=homartemplatepractice.blogspot.com&q=bfparker@frontiernet.net&sa=Search&sitesearch=&client=pub-7556873783516109&forid=1&ie=ISO-8859-1&oe=ISO-8859-1&cof=GALT%3A%23333333%3BGL%3A1%3BDIV%3A%2337352E%3BVLC%3A000000%3BAH%3Acenter%3BBGC%3AC6B396%3BLBGC%3A8E866F%3BALC%3A000000%3BLC%3A000000%3BT%3A44423A%3BGFNT%3A663333%3BGIMP%3A663333%3BLH%3A50%3BLW%3A54%3BL%3Ahttp%3A%2F%2Fhomar.files.wordpress.com%2F2007%2F09%2Frizalman.jpg%3BS%3Ahttp%3A%2F%2F%3BFORID%3A1&hl=en

 

For many more of our blog articles (with some duplications) go to: 

http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&ie=ISO-8859-1&q=bfparker@frontiernet.net&btnG=Google+Search

 

To access free E-Book full contents of Franklin Parker, George Peabody, A Biography.  Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1995 rev. edn., go to: http://books.google.com/books?id=OPIbk-ZPnF4C&dq=franklin+parker&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=qxV3RqTk1k&sig=sXAmDL_CyCYd-Sl0n_IRl7g1S1I#PPP1,M1                                          

END.  Contact:  bfparker@frontiernet.net

William HeWilliam Heard Kilpatrick (Nov. 20, 1871-Feb. 13, 1965),  Progressive Educator and Philosopher, by Franklin and Betty J. Parker, bfparker@frontiernet.net 
KILPATRICK, WILLIAM HEARD (Nov. 20, 1871-Feb. 13, 1965), educator and philosopher of progressive education, was born in White Plains, GA, son of James Hines Kilpatrick, a Southern Baptist minister, and Edna Perrin Heard, a teacher.  

Kilpatrick had an orthodox upbringing and did well in school.  In 1888 he entered the sophomore class at Mercer University (Baptist, Macon, GA), excelled in mathematics, and earned the B.A. degree in 1891.  A Mercer trustee encouraged him to  study mathematics and physics at Johns Hopkins University, 1891-92.  There he was transported from a conservative rural atmosphere  to a liberal community of inquiring scholars.  Mercer granted him the M.A. degree in 1892 for his Johns Hopkins graduate study.  Because of administrative changes, he did not get a hoped-for Mercer teaching job.

His first teaching post at Blakely Institute, a combined elementary and secondary public school in southwest Georgia, required that he attend a July 1892 summer session at Rock College Normal School, Athens, GA.  There he learned of the educational theories of German educator Friedrich Froebel, kindergarten founder and learning-through-play advocate (Kilpatrick later wrote Froebel’s Kindergarten Principles Critically Examined, New York: Macmillan, 1916); and of Swiss educator Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, who urged teaching by encouragement without harsh discipline. He was impressed by Education Professor Otis Ashmore, who told of the interest stimulated among his students at Chatham Academy, Savannah, GA, so that they studied without supervision in his absence.  Ashmore’s example, Kilpatrick later wrote, was the origin for his 1918 project method article.  At an April 8, 1893, Chautauqua tent meeting at nearby Albany, GA, he heard visiting Cook County (IL) Normal School director and progressive educator Francis Wayland Parker.  He then read Leila E. Patridge, The “Quincy Method” Illustrated (New York: E.L. Kellogg, 1885), describing Parker’s successful progressive education methods used while he was Quincy, MA, school superintendent.  He taught mathematics in the eighth, ninth, and tenth grades at Blakely and was co-principal, 1892-95.  There he first experimented with nontraditional teaching and administration. 

He again studied at Johns Hopkins University, summer 1895; then taught seventh grade at and was principal of Anderson Elementary School, Savannah, GA, 1896-97.  He  also studied at the University of Chicago under John Dewey, summer 1898, later noting that he was not initially impressed by Dewey.  He was at Mercer University, 1897-1906, taught mathematics, was vice president, 1900, and acting president, 1904-06, but resigned when the trustees were concerned about his doubting the virgin birth.  Summer sessions he attended while at Mercer University included Cornell University, summer 1900, under Charles de Garmo, disciple of Johann Friedrich Herbart, and a Rockefeller Foundation-sponsored summer school for teachers, Knoxville, TN, where he heard psychologist G. Stanley Hall. He taught in Columbus, OH, in 1906-07 before enrolling as a student at Teachers College, Columbia University (hereafter TCCU), in 1907.

Dean James Earl Russell had merged progressivism and professionalism to make TCCU a leading U.S. teacher education center. Kilpatrick studied under Dewey, who had left Chicago for Columbia University in 1904, Paul Monroe, major U.S. educational historian, E. L. Thorndike, and others.  He impressed Monroe in a class paper documenting the beginning of  Dutch schools in New Amsterdam (New York) in 1638, not 1633, as previously believed.  Teaching history of education part time, he began a dissertation on Benedict Spinoza, did not find enough material, returned to the origin of Dutch schools, and completed his dissertation in 1911 (Monroe helped get it published by the Department of the Interior as The Dutch Schools of New Netherland and Colonial New York. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1912). 

In 1908 Kilpatrick wrote in his diary, “Professor Dewey has made a great difference in my thinking.”  Dewey wrote to Professor John A. MacVannel, Kilpatrick’s major professor, “He is the best I ever had.”  Kilpatrick spent the rest of his professional career and long life at TCCU where he was a student, 1907-09; received the Ph.D. in 1912, was lecturer in education, 1909-11; assistant professor, 1911-15; associate professor, 1915-18; professor of philosophy of education, 1918-37; and thereafter emeritus professor.

Kilpatrick was catapulted to fame by his 1918 article, “The Project Method,” Teachers College Record, 19 (September 1918), pp. 319-335.  By “project” Kilpatrick meant any purposeful learning activity which the student wanted to do wholeheartedly.  This active, interest-motivated, and life-like activity was seized upon by progressive teachers as a useful curriculum device. Course content was divided into units or projects students could complete alone or in small groups under teacher guidance.  The project method, seen as a welcome antidote to traditional education, gave Dewey’s child-centered education a practical teaching methodology and helped the shift from subject- and teacher-based education to child-centered education.  It was popular in progressive elementary schools in the 1930s and was revived in the open classroom atmosphere of the late 1960s.

Kilpatrick commanded attention at TCCU by his courtly manner, erect stature, and lion-like mane of silvery white hair.  He attracted students by using small group discussions.  With notable skill he divided educational problems among small groups in a large class, each group discussed a specific problem, a group chair reported findings to the large class (numbering in the hundreds), followed by discussion and debate. His success in this procedure earned for him the title of the “Million Dollar Professor,” which came from the headline of a New York Post article (March 6, 1937) by David Davidson, estimating that his 35,000 graduate students paid over a million dollars in tuition fees to TCCU before he retired in 1937.

He married Marie Beman Guyton (they had three children) on December 27, l898 (she died May 1907); he then married Margaret Manigault Pinckney on November 26, 1908 (she died November 1938); and finally married Marion Y. Ostrander on May 8, 1940 (she had been his secretary).

He  taught summers at the University of Georgia, 1906, 1908, and 1909; the University of the South (Knoxville), 1907; was visiting professor, Northwestern University, 1937-38, and taught summer sessions there, 1939, 1940, 1941; taught summer sessions, Stanford University, 1938; University of Kentucky, 1942; University of North Carolina, 1942; and University of Minnesota, 1946.  His trips abroad included school visits, lectures, and meetings with prominent educators in Italy, Switzerland, and France,  May-June 1912; Europe and Asia, August 1926-June 1927; and round the world, August-December 1929.

He received honorary LL.D. degrees from Mercer University, 1926; Columbia University, 1929; and Bennington College, 1938 (which he helped found in 1923 and where he was president of the board of trustees, 1931-38); the honorary D.H.L. degree from the College of Jewish Studies, 1952; and the Brandeis Award for humanitarian service, 1953.

After retiring from TCCU, 1937, he was president of the New York Urban League, 1941-51; chairman of American Youth for World Youth, 1946-51; chairman of the Bureau of International Education, 1940-51; and on the board of directors of the League for Industrial Democracy.

Kilpatrick had severe critics but many more admirers and followers. His eighty-fifth birthday, November 20, 1956, celebrated at Horace Mann Auditorium, TCCU, resulted in a special March 1957 issue of Progressive Education, “William Heard Kilpatrick Eighty-Fifth Anniversary,” containing 10 articles.  Both heralded and criticized as John Dewey’s chief educational interpreter, Kilpatrick was a leading advocate of progressive education. He died after a long illness at age 93 on February 13, 1965.

References

Kilpatrick gave to the Special Collections, Teachers College Library, Columbia University a handwritten diary (begun 1904) of over 40 volumes, scrapbooks, unpublished papers, and a two-volume typescript from taped interviews with his biographer, Samuel Tenenbaum.  An oral history memoir is in the Special Collections, Butler Library, Columbia University Archives.  His 14 books and 375 articles are listed in “Writings of William Heard Kilpatrick,” Studies in Philosophy and Education, Vol. 1 (November 1961), pp. 220-230. 

His more important books include Foundations of Method, New York: Macmillan, 1925, which expands on his project method (translated into Chinese, Japanese, and Russian); Education for a Changing Civilization, Macmillan, 1926 (translated into Japanese, Russian, Arabic, Portuguese, German, and Italian); Education and the Social Crisis, A Proposed Program, New York: Liveright, 1932; The Educational Frontier, New York: Appleton-Century, 1933, containing his articles and articles by other leading progressives (he was book editor), and said to be the characteristic progressivist work of the 1930s; Group Education for a Democracy, New York: Association Press, 1940 (translated into Japanese, Korean, and Spanish); and Philosophy of Education, New York, 1951 (translated into Spanish).

Samuel Tenenbaum, William Heard Kilpatrick: Trailblazer in Education, New York: Harper, 1951, is the authorized biography based on taped interviews. Other biographical sketches are William Graebner, “William Heard Kilpatrick” in the Dictionary of American Biography,Supplement Seven, 1961-1965, John A. Garraty, editor, New York, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1981, pp. 434-436; and Franklin Parker, “William Heard Kilpatrick, 1871-1965,” School and Society, Vol. 93, No. 2264 (October 16, 1965), pp. 368-371.  Insights about Kilpatrick’s influence are in John L. Childs, American Pragmatism and Education, New York: Holt, 1956; Lawrence A. Cremin, The Transformation of the School: Progressivism in American Education,1876-1957, New York:  Alfred A. Knopf, 1961; Ernst Papanek, “William Heard Kilpatrick’s International Influence: Teacher of World’s Teachers,” Progressive Education, Vol.34, No.2 (March 1957), pp. 54-57 (entire issue has 10 evaluative articles honoring Kilpatrick on his eighty-fifth birthday); and “W. H. Kilpatrick: After 93 Years,” Teachers College Record, Vol. 66, No.4 (January 1965), pp. 346-364, containing three articles.  Topical selections from his writings are compared with others in Leslie R. Perry, editor, Bertrand Russell, A.S. Neill, Homer Lane, W.H. Kilpatrick:  Four Progressive Educators, London:  Collier-Macmillan, 1967. 

Critics include Albert Lynd, Quackery in the Public Schools, New York:  Grosset and Dunlap, 1953, pp. 212-253; and Augustin G. Rudd, Bending the Twig: The Revolution in Education and Its Effect on Our Children, New York: Sons of the American Revolution, 1957.  A Catholic critic is Joseph McGlade, Progressive Educators and the Catholic Church, Westminster, MD: Newman Press, 1953.

Thirteen contributors evaluated his influence in a special issue on “William Heard Kilpatrick, 1875-1965,” Educational Theory, Vol. 16, No.1 (January 1966), 98 pp.  Obituaries appeared in The New York Times, February 14, 1965, p. 92; New York Herald Tribune, February 15, 1965; and San Francisco Chronicle, February 15, 1965, p. 26.  END OF MANUSCRIPT.

Send comments, corrections to bfparker@frontiernet.net

Addendum: 24 of Franklin and Betty J. Parker’s book titles  are listed in: http://www.library.vanderbilt.edu/peabody/about/alum6.html#P

For their writings in blog form, enter    bfparker   in google.com  or in any other search engine.

 

Willard Goslin (1899-1969), Educator, School Principal, School Superintendent, and Education Professor at Peabody College, Nashville, TN.  By Franklin & Betty J. Parker, bfparker@frontiernet.net

Willard Goslin, educator, was born in Harrisburg, Mo. in 1899.  He was a teacher, school principal, school superintendent, and education professor at George Peabody College for Teachers in  Nashville, TN.  

We Parkers knew him in the 1950s as a professor at Peabody College in Nashville, renamed Peabody College of Vanderbilt University in 1979.  Goslin taught at Peabody during 1951-67.  He was chairperson of its Division of Educational Administration and Community Development.  He also headed Peabody College’s $7 million U.S. Agency for International Development-funded Korea Teacher Education Project.  

The lean, lanky farm-reared Missourian began teaching in rural schools at age 16, worked his way through Northeast Missouri State College, Kirksville, B.S., 1922; the University of Missouri, M.A., 1928; took courses at Teachers College, Columbia University, 1930, and Washington University, St. Louis, 1929-35.  He later received honorary LL.D. degrees from Occidental College, Los Angeles; and also from Seoul National University, Korea, 1961.

Goslin became a high school principal at age 22 and was superintendent of a small school system in Slater, Mo., at age 23.  He became school superintendent at Webster Grove, an upper middle class suburb of St. Louis, 1928-44; was school superintendent of Minneapolis, Minn., 1944-48; and then was school superintendent of Pasadena, Calif., 1948-51.  

His forced resignation as Pasadena school superintendent became a cause célèbre among concerned educators and the interested public of that time.  Pasadena, California, was the scene of a classic progressive-versus-traditional education confrontation soon after World War II.  That confrontation reflected a changed U.S. mood early in the U.S.-USSR cold war and Wisc. Sen. Joseph McCarthy’s wild-swinging anti-communist crusade. 

World War II had brought into the Pasadena area an influx of poor whites, African-Americans, and other minorities for war work.  Their presence inevitably changed Pasadena, previously a wealthy spillover community of Los Angeles and Hollywood.  Not only were they a challenge the Pasadena school system had to cope with, but they posed a threat to that city and county’s long-held wealthy conservative power structure.  

As the new school superintendent, Willard Goslin felt he had to bring in a progressive education curriculum which included studying about the UN, UNESCO and world affairs; had to introduce sex education; and began to integrate poorer white and minority students into public schools which had been segregated by residential areas.  Inevitably the changes he urged evoked a postwar conservative reaction that  forced his resignation.  The Goslin case made national headlines and was described in newsman David Hulburd’s This Happened in Pasadena (New York: Macmillan, 1951).  

Peabody College President Henry H. Hill (1894-1987), like Goslin a past president of the prestigious American Association of School Administrators, had extensive personal ties to Willard Goslin.  President Hill urged that Willard Goslin move to Peabody College to lend his educator skills and prestige to Peabody College’s school administration programs.  Goslin’s 16 years as George Peabody College for Teachers professor and administrator were successful and mutually beneficial.

We Parkers well remember the excitement of  Willard Goslin’s presence at Peabody College.  Franklin Parker, on whose doctoral committee Prof. Goslin served, was a student in one of Goslin’s early classes during the summer of 1952.  

So many student registered for Goslin’s introductory course that a partition between classrooms had to be removed to accommodate them all.  The large enrolment he attracted resulted from the publicity about his liberal stand at Pasadena, his educational experience, attractive personality, droll humor, and down to earth educational philosophy.

Learn more about Willard Goslin’s exciting career  and influence as an educator in above-mentioned David Hulburd’s This Happened in Pasadenaand by typing: Willard Goslin (1899-1969), Educator, in a search engine like google:  http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&ie=ISO-8859-1&q=Willard+Goslin&btnG=Google+Search 

  Send comments, corrections to bfparker@frontiernet.net

Addendum: 24 of Franklin and Betty J. Parker’s book titles  are listed in: http://www.library.vanderbilt.edu/peabody/about/alum6.html#P

For their writings in blog form, enter    bfparker   in google.com  or in any other search engine.

<b>Abstract of “Abraham and Simon Flexner: Medical Education Reformers,” by Franklin and Betty Parker, bfparker@frontiernet.net, appeared in: ERIC No. ED443765 (Educational Resources Information Center), and was published in <i>Resources In Education</i> , XXXVI, No. 1 (Jan. 2001), p. 160.

<br><br>This paper, in dialogue form,  tells the stories of two members of a remarkable  family of nine children, the Flexners of Louisville, Kentucky. The paper focuses on Abraham and Simon, who were reformers in the field of medical education in the United States. The dialogue takes Abraham Flexner through his undergraduate education at Johns Hopkins University, his founding of a school that specialized in educating wealthy but underachieving) boys, and his marriage to Anne Laziere Crawford.  <br><br>Abraham Flexner and his colleague, Henry S. Pritchett, traveled around the U.S. and Canada assessing 155 medical schools in hopes of professionalizing medical education. Their  investigation culminated in a report on “Medical Education in the United States and Canada” (1910). Abraham capped his career by creating the first significant “think tank,” the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. <br><br>The paper also profiles Simon Flexner, a pharmacist whose dream was to become a pathologist. Simon, too, gravitated to Johns Hopkins University where he became chief pathologist and wrote over 200 pathology and bacteriology reports between 1890-1909. He also helped organize the Peking Union Medical College in Peking, China, and was appointed Eastman Professor at Oxford University. (End of abstract).

<br><br>An Interpretive Dialog between Betty J. and Franklin Parker,” bfparker@frontiernet.net

<br><br><u>Betty</u>: We review first Abraham Flexner’s <i>An Autobiography</i> (NYC: Simon & Schuster, 1960). Frank, who were the Flexners?

<br><br><u>Frank</u>: The Flexners of Louisville, Ky., were a remarkable family, nine children of immigrant German-Jews, the father a peddler in the South. We focus on Abraham Flexner, then on Simon Flexner, each outstanding in medical education in the U.S. and beyond. We then tell how Abraham Flexner encouraged our own (the authors’) research 45 years ago on educational philanthropist George Peabody (1795-1869). Betty, briefly characterize Abraham Flexner.

<br><br><u>Betty</u>:  Teacher, researcher, and philanthropic foundation executive, Abraham Flexner (1866-1959) won early attention for his private Flexner prep school in Louisville, which was successful in getting indulged and lazy wealthy boys into Ivy League colleges. His first critical book,<i> American College</i> (NYC: Century Co., 1908), prompted a Carnegie foundation executive to ask him in 1906 to examine medical schools in the U.S. and Canada. The 1910 Flexner Report created a revolution, remade medical education in the U.S. and beyond, highlighted medical quackery, made science, medicines, and supervised clinical training central in the professional preparation of physicians. He helped make medical doctors top professionals, highly esteemed, valued, and well paid. Frank?

<br><br><u>Frank</u>: Abraham Flexner was at the center of Carnegie, Rockefeller, and other multi-million dollar foundations that tackled difficult problems?educational, social, racial, health, and others–in the U.S. South, nationally, and internationally. He topped his career by creating (1930) the first U.S. think tank, the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, N.J. As its first director he brought from Hitler’s Germany Albert Einstein as mathematics professor. Einstein was named Time magazine’s “Man of the 20th Century.” We then tell of Abraham’s equally famous brother, Simon Flexner. But first, Betty, tell of their immigrant father, Morris Flexner.

<br><br><u>Betty</u>: The first Flexner in the U.S., Morris Flexner (1819-1882), grandson of the chief rabbi of Moravia and Bohemia, was born in Germany in an impoverished family. Because his parents had more children than they could feed, Morris was sent at age 13 to live with an uncle in Strasbourg, Alsace, on the French-German border. There he was a teacher for a time, very poor, hoping for a better life in the U.S. He spent 90 days in steerage on a sailing ship to NYC, worked there two years among French-speaking Jews, living from hand-to-mouth. Knowing of French-speaking Jewish countrymen in New Orleans, hoping to do better there, he arrived during a yellow fever epidemic, was stricken, and barely recovered at a charitable hospital run by Catholic nuns. An unknown French-speaking Samaritan fed him, heard him speak of a countryman living in Louisville, Ky., and paid his fare to Louisville. Frank?

<br><br><u>Frank</u>: He arrived in Louisville on crutches, recovered, and became like his friend a pack peddler, selling goods house to house, store to store. Adept at sharing news and gossip, jovial and likable, he won customers and friends in isolated farm homes, where he was often asked to stay for meals and for the night. He bought a crippled horse for $4, later another horse and a wagon, made a living, stopped frequently at a Jewish merchant’s house in Louisville, the Godshaw family, where he saw and was smitten by an immigrant French-speaking Jewish seamstress, Esther Abraham, whom he married. Betty, what of Esther Abraham?

<br><br><u>Betty</u>: Esther Abraham (1834-1905) was born in Germany near the French border. Her father, a dealer in cattle and other items, sent her to school to age 13. When she was 16, an aunt in Paris with a lingerie shop took in Esther and her sister and trained them as seamstresses. Their Uncle Godshaw, the Louisville, Ky., merchant, visited them several times in Paris and sent them tickets for passage to America. After nine weeks crossing the Atlantic the sisters were met in NYC in Sept. 1855 by a cousin and reached Louisville, where they lived with Uncle Godshaw’s family. They successfully made and sold women’s Paris fashions. Esther, popular socially, took to Morris Flexner. He at 34, married Esther, 22, Sept. 15, 1856. Frank?

<br><br><u>Frank</u>: A year later when the oldest of their nine children was born, Jacob, (1857), Morris Flexner went into business in Lawrenceburg, Ky., taking his family with him. But Civil War raiders made that town unsafe. After six years in Lawrenceburg (1857-63), the enlarged Flexner family returned to Louisville. Morris sold hats wholesale on the road, traveling in Tenn., Ala., Ga., Texas, elsewhere in the South. But the Panic of 1873 ruined him. From 1873 the family lived hand-to-mouth, dependent on first-born Jacob who, apprenticed to a druggist, had his own drugstore until the Panic of 1893 ruined him. The older children and later Abraham earned enough to pay the bills that kept the family together. oBetty, what of Abraham Flexner’s early life?

<br><br><u>Betty</u>: From ages 15 to 17, 1881-83, after Louisville High School hours, Abraham Flexner, worked in the private Louisville Library, six days a week, 2:30 p.m. to 10 p.m., checking and shelving books, eating a cold supper behind the card catalog, earning $16 a month. Besides charging and shelving books, he dipped into classical books and listened to adult conversations on politics, literature, religion, music, and art. “The decisive moment of my life came,” he later wrote “in 1884.” Oldest brother Jacob told Abraham, 17 and just graduated from high school: take this $1,000 I saved from my drugstore and go to college in Baltimore at Johns Hopkins University. Frank?

<br><br><u>Frank</u>: Why Johns Hopkins University? Jacob had heard of its high reputation from a Louisville friend, a view confirmed by the medical doctors who came to his drugstore. Philanthropist Johns Hopkins (1795-1873) was a Baltimore Quaker, bachelor, merchant, and the B&O RR’s largest stockholder. B&O RR Pres. John Work Garrett (1820-84), knowing that Johns Hopkins sought advice about his will, brought Hopkins together with visiting Mass.-born George Peabody (1795-1869), a former Baltimore merchant, then a London-based banker and a well-known philanthropist. George Peabody, when asked why and how he came to give away his millions, told Hopkins (condensed quote): “Like you, I wanted to be rich. I worked hard and succeeded. When age and illness came upon me, I wanted to make the best use of my money. I found trustees who carried out my wishes for U.S. libraries, museums, and a music conservatory to serve people; and for low-cost housing for London’s working poor (from 1862). Seeing the good my institutes did made me happy.” Johns Hopkins soon after recorded his will, leaving some $7 million to found Johns Hopkins University, Medical School, and Hospital. Betty?

<br><br><u>Betty</u>: Its first President Daniel Coit Gilman (1831-1908) made Johns Hopkins University the first graduate university in the U.S., based on the German university idea that a university creates new knowledge as well educates new generations. While Abraham Flexner learned the classics in Hopkins undergraduate program, such doctoral candidates as Woodrow Wilson were writing the books and experimenting in the labs that would make them future leaders. Frank?

<br><br><u>Frank</u>: Weak in Latin and Greek, Flexner asked his Greek prof. what to do. The prof. said: See me each day at 1 PM. I can only give you 5 minutes but I will tell you what to read and check to see what you have learned. Concerned because he had only enough money for two years’ tuition and board, he asked and was given permission to double up on classes. At final exam time, finding that two or more exams came at the same time, he explained his dilemma to Pres. Daniel Coit Gilman, who said: all we require is that you know the subjects. I will arrange to stagger your conflicting exams. oFlexner later remarked at the informality at Johns Hopkins, and at the understanding and help that enabled him to get a bachelor’s degree in two years. Betty?

<br><br><u>Betty</u>: Back in Louisville (1886), aged 20 to 22, Abraham taught for two years in the Louisville Male High School he had attended. In the late afternoons and evenings he tutored well-to-do boys whose parents anxiously wanted them to get into college. A prominent Louisville lawyer whose only son had been expelled from an eastern preparatory school asked Flexner to help get his son into Princeton. Flexner said: if you can get together from your friends five of their sons for tutoring at $500 a year each, I will prepare your son for Princeton. Thus began “Mr. Flexner’s School” which, for 15 years (1890-1905), won high praise locally and nationally. Harvard Pres. Charles W. Eliot (1834-1926) wrote to Flexner (condensed): “Boys from your school come to Harvard younger than most and graduate in a shorter time. How do you do it?” Frank? “

<br><br><u>Frank</u>: Abraham Flexner used every strategy on boys who had failed elsewhere: humor, encouragement, emulation, competition. He played able students against indolent ones, built on what each knew, patiently overcame their weaknesses. Flexner kept the school small, tuition high, and discipline strict. He drilled, joked, cajoled, used every means to get his boys into Harvard, Yale, Princeton, and elsewhere. In the early 1890s prominent Louisville businessman John M. Atherton asked Flexner to tutor his bright niece, Anne Crawford, for entrance to Vassar. He demurred at first but then thought it might be fun to teach a young woman. Betty?

<br><br><u>Betty</u>: Anne Laziere Crawford was born while her parents visited Ky. but she was raised in Ga. Her great grandfather, William Harris Crawford (1772-1834), was a U.S. senator from Ga., U.S. Minister to France, U.S. Secretary of War and of the Treasury, and unsuccessfully ran for the U.S. presidency in 1824. Her grandfather was a Methodist minister and president of Mercer College. Her father was impoverished by the Civil War when she went to live with her Louisville uncle. Frank?

<br><br><u>Frank</u>: Abraham Flexner did get Anne Crawford into Vassar, where she edited the college literary magazine. She returned to Louisville, taught in “Mr. Flexner’s School” two years, and published several stories. They went bicycling together and became engaged in 1896. But because Abraham, eight years older than Anne, was the Flexner family’s financial mainstay, they put off marriage for over two years. Anne went to NYC, reviewed Broadway plays for the Louisville Courier-Journal, studied writing at New York University, and began writing plays. Betty?

<br><br><u>Betty</u>: Anne returned to Louisville, married Abraham Flexner (June 1898), and while Abraham ran his school, she wrote plays, some for leading actress Minnie Maddern Fiske (1865-1932). Anne Flexner’s biggest dramatic success was Mrs. Wiggs of the Cabbage Patch, based on the best selling novel, which opened in NYC Sept. 3, 1904, ran for seven seasons, was played by three touring companies, and was presented in England, Australia, China, India and Korea. She wrote other plays but none as successful. Frank?

<br><br><u>Frank</u>: In 1904 Anne asked Abraham: If you had not married me, what would you have done by now? He answered: Quit teaching and gone to Europe. She said: Then that’s what we will do. The three Flexners (they had a six year old daughter) first went to Cambridge, Mass., where he studied at Harvard’s graduate school of education (1905-06). They then sailed for England and the Continent. With letters of introduction, Abraham attended lectures at Oxford and Cambridge universities, visited Rugby and Eton, and studied at the universities of Berlin and Heidelberg. In Europe, reflecting on his 16 teaching years, he wrote his first book, The American College (NY: Century Co., 1908). It criticized trends he had observed at Harvard and other colleges:

<br>1-free electives which allowed unwise students foolishly to take only easy courses,

<br>2-large classes which limited student interaction, and

<br>3-overuse of teaching assistants, busy and harried as graduate students themselves and unprepared to teach effectively. Betty?

<br><br><u>Betty</u>: One of the few who read his critical book was Henry Smith Pritchett (1857-1939), president of the new Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. They met several times and Pritchett asked Flexner: Would you consider making a study of U.S. medical schools? Taken aback, Flexner said: You are confusing me with my medical doctor brother Simon Flexner. No, said Pritchett, I know Dr. Simon Flexner and I know that the American Medical Association has a committee examining medical schools. But medical doctors can’t or won’t criticize their colleagues. I want you because you are an educator and a critic. You can call the shots as you see them. Frank?

<br><br><u>Frank</u>: Henry S. Pritchett, graduate of a college which his father had started in Missouri, earned the Ph.D. in science at the University of Munich (1894); was an astronomer at the U.S. Naval Observatory; then taught astronomy at Washington University, St. Louis, Mo. (1883-97). He headed the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey (1897-1900) and became president of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1900-06). There he suggested to steel magnet Andrew Carnegie that he establish the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, which Pritchett headed for 24 years (1906-30). Pritchett’s list of things to accomplish at the Carnegie Foundation included:

<br>1-a national pension plan for teachers and professors (today’s TIAA),

<br>2-a national standard for high school graduation (the Carnegie unit), and

<br>3-studies to uncover weaknesses in and to professionalize schools of medicine, law, engineering, and others. Betty?

<br><br><u>Betty</u>: Reading the history of medical education in the U.S., Flexner found that in all there had been 457 medical schools in the U.S., some still-born, most short lived, 155 of which survived in 1907, all private, all to make money. Nearly all accepted any applicant who could pay, used as teachers local physicians who taught part time for extra money. There were no state licensing boards. Few medical schools were connected to a hospital or had clinics, research facilities, or good equipment. Medical students were still little more than apprentices. Frank?

<br><br><u>Frank</u>: Flexner soon saw that Johns Hopkins was the best of the medical schools, largely led by its first medical faculty: Drs. William Henry Welch (1850-1934), pathology; Howard Atwood Kelly (1858-1943), gynecology and obstetrics; William Stewart Halsted (1852-1922), surgery; and William Osler (1849-1919), medicine. Betty, why did Flexner pick Johns Hopkins Medical School as his model?

<br><br><u>Betty</u>: Entrance requirements were high and its medical faculty were highly trained, mostly in European universities. Medical students examined and studied patients in hospital wards under experienced physicians; discussed symptoms, findings, and lab tests results with experienced physicians; and consulted their superiors about the best course of treatment. Patients benefited and medical students became competent.

<br><br><u>Frank</u>: Visiting the 155 medical schools in the U.S. and Canada, Flexner looked for:

<br>1-entrance requirements: what were they? Were they rigidly followed?

<br>2-faculty: size, training, how many full time (few), part time (most)?

<br>3-finance: what endowment, what fees, what financial stability?

<br>4-laboratories and equipment: how many, what kind, what quality, how much used, and how often updated?

<br>5-library: books, journals, quality, quantity, upkeep, budget?

<br>6-Hospital access by medical faculty, by medical student; the amount of student supervision by experienced physicians? Betty?

<br><br><u>Betty</u>:  Helen Thomas Flexner was born Aug. 14, 1871 (d. April 1956), descendant of Welsh Puritans who settled in Maryland, 1650s, and became prominent Baltimore Quakers.  Her older sister, Martha Carey Thomas (1857-1935), earned a European university Ph.D. degree (Zurich, 1882), helped found Bryn Mawr College for Women (Pa., 1884), and was its dean and president (1894-1922).  Their father was a Johns Hopkins University trustee.  Helen Thomas also attended Bryn Mawr (1889), traveled abroad, and met Simon Flexner several times: when he did post-doctoral study under pathologist Dr. Welch at Johns Hopkins Medical School, and again when he was pathology professor, University of Pennsylvania, near Bryn Mawr.  Frank? <br><br>

<u>Frank</u>:  Simon Flexner was awed by her family culture and thought she was too much above him.  She, too, thinking the gulf between them unbridgeable, rejected his first proposal, then had a change of heart.  Despite doubts, they were married in 1903, when he was first connected with the Rockefeller Institute, NYC.  She was 32, he 40.  It was a wonderful marriage of 43 years, this blending of the daughter of a famous well-to-do and well-connected Baltimore Quaker family and the fifth son of a failed immigrant German Jewish peddler.  One of Simon and Helen’s two sons was a mathematician and UN official; the second, James Thomas Flexner, was a prolific author, most famous for his four-volume biography of George Washington, published in one volume for the U.S. bicentennial and successfully produced as a television miniseries.  Abraham and Simon were the only Flexners who married out of their parents’ faith.  Surviving Simon by 10 years, Helen basked in his many honors.  Betty? <br><br>

<u>Betty</u>:  Of the other Flexner children:  Jacob (1857-1934), the druggist, become a successful medical doctor.  His daughter, Jennie Flexner started and headed the New York Public Library’s Readers’ Advisor’s Office.   Bernard (1865-1945), a prominent lawyer, was a juvenile court reformer of note; endowed at Bryn Mawr a Mary Flexner lectureship and at Vanderbilt University an Abraham Flexner fellowship; was an ardent Zionist, never married and lived in NYC with sister Mary.  Mary, already mentioned, attended Bryn Mawr supported by Abraham in whose Flexner School she later taught.  Frank, any last word? <br><br>

<u>Frank</u>:  At Uplands Retirement Village, Pleasant Hill, TN, where we live, fellow residents connected with Johns Hopkins include Rev. Ed. Schnieder who studied at Hopkins; Barry Evans whose daughter worked in its fund raising program; Marge Childs who studied at the Peabody Prep, the feeder school to the Peabody Conservatory of Music, part of Johns Hopkins University since 1982. <br><br>

The Parkers came to Uplands May 5, 1994, from Western Carolina University, Cullowhee, N.C., where Franklin was visiting professor (1989-94).  He retired from West Virginia University, Morgantown (1968-86).  The Parkers, a research and writing team for over 50 years, published among other works <i>George Peabody, a Biography</i> (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1971, revised 1995).  They met at Berea College near Lexington, Ky., 1946, attended what is now Peabody College of Vanderbilt University, 1952-56, and have completed a long manuscript:  “The Forgotten George Peabody (1795-1869), A Handbook A-Z of the Massachusetts-Born Merchant, London-Based Banker, & Philanthropist: His Life, Influence, and Related People, Places, Events, & Institutions.</b>

 

Philip Vickers Fithian (1747-1776), a Princeton Tutor on a Virginia Plantation by Franklin and Betty J. Parker, bfparker@frontiernet.net [63Heritage Loop, Crossville, TN 38571-8270, Ph. (931) 277-3268]

Philip Vickers Fithian was a northern tutor on a southern plantation just before the American Revolution.  His journal and letters written during 1773-74 and kept at Princeton University Library, New Jersey, provide an accurate picture of Virginia life, education, and manners before the Revolution.  Because Fithian was a tutor on the Carter plantation, Nomini Hall, Westmoreland County, Va., his journal and letters are of special interest.  They offer an in in timate description of a plantation tutor’s duties as well as glimpses of life and education in the colonial South.

Philip Fithian was born in Greenwich, Cumberland County, New Jersey, on December 19, 1747.  His forebears three generations back in 1640 had emigrated from England.  Little is known of Fithian’s early education before his admission in 1770 at age 23 to the junior class of the College of New Jersey, renamed Princeton College in 1896 and later Princeton University.

The College of New Jersey was chartered in 1746 and opened in 1747 by the “New Light” (evangelical) Presbyterians in Elizabeth, New Jersey.  Its second president was Aaron Burr.  The College was moved to Princeton, New Jersey, in 1756, was occupied by British forces in the American Revolution, its buildings badly damaged, and then rebuilt under President John Witherspoon.

Dr. John Witherspoon, appointed president in 1768, two years before Fithian’s admission, was a leading and well known Presbyterian minister.  He was later a delegate from New Jersey to the Continental Congress and a signer of the Declaration of Independence.  Because of his missionary zeal as president of the College of New Jersey, he influenced many students studying for the ministry to go out to preach and teach in frontier communities, particularly in the southern colonies 

Fithian graduated from the college at Princeton in September 1772.

The sudden death of his parents earlier that year had kept him from additional study at Princeton to prepare for the ministry.  He went back to his hometown of Greenwich and studied Hebrew under Reverend Andrew Hunter.  He also studied theology at nearby Deerfield. It was Reverend Hunter’s son, then at Princeton, who wrote to Fithian that he heard that President John Witherspoon had been asked to find someone to fill a position as tutor on a Virginia plantation.  Needing to earn money before he could complete his studies for the ministry, Fithian went to Princeton to see President Witherspoon and listened to him read the letter from Colonel Carter describing the position.

A tutor was needed to teach the eight Carter children.  The three boys from ages 5 to 17 were “to study the English language carefully & to be instructed in Latin & Greek.”  The five daughters were to be taught English.  The tutor was to receive £60 in currency, room and board, have the use of the library, a servant, and feed for his horse.  Witherspoon advised Fithian to go, even if for only a short time.  Fithian was apprehensive.  His friends cast doubt on the idea, and Fithian wrote to President Witherspoon to try to get a graduating senior to go in his stead.  Fithian continued to worry through August and September 1773.

Finally, with misgivings, he decided to accept the position and left on horseback for Virginia in mid October.  Just before he left, he wrote in his journal: “Rode & took Leave of all my Relations–how hard is it at last?  My heart misgives, is reluctant, in spite of me; But I must away!  Protect me merciful Heaven.”

Fithian’s journal and letters tell that he rode horseback 260 miles in seven days and that he spent on his trip a total of £3.6 shillings and 5 pence.  He reached Nomini Hall, the mansion on the Carter Plantation, in Westmoreland County, Virginia, on Thursday, October 29, 1773.

On Monday, November 1, 1773, he taught his eight pupils for the first time.  The eldest son read the works of Salust, a Roman historian and politician, and studied Latin grammar.  The middle son read and wrote English and did subtraction.  The youngest son read and wrote English and did arithmetic sums.  The eldest daughter read the Spectator papers, wrote a composition, and did her arithmetic.  Three of the other girls went over their spelling and did some writing.  The smallest girl was just beginning to learn the alphabet.

Fithian was agreeably surprised during his stay at Nomini Hall.  Instead of the revelry and riotous living he had imagined, he found refinement, elegance, and culture.  Robert Carter III was the descendant of a wealthy and influential Tidewater family.  He was the grandson of the original immigrant, John Carter, who left England for Virginia in 1649, nine years after Fithian’s own forebears had reached the new world.  “King Carter,” as he was sometimes called, had acquired 13,500 acres and had become a successful planter and businessman.  His son had expanded the family fortune, had obtained 330,000 acres, which he divided among his sons.  He left Robert Carter III at age 21 the master of 70,000 acres.

Robert Carter had been sent at the young age of nine to William and Mary College in Williamsburg.  From there Carter made his first trip to England, where he spent two years studying and gaining refinement, as his father and grandfather had done before him.  Returning to Virginia in 1751, he married a 16-year-old girl of his own station whom he met on a trip to Maryland.  She bore her husband 17 children.  Those who lived she carefully trained during their early years.

Robert Carter III led a busy life at Nomini Hall.  He managed his 70,000 acres, consisting of a dozen plantations.  He grew tobacco and grain.  He also rented large parts of his estate to others, some on money rental for fixed periods, some to white sharecroppers, supplying them with land, tools, and seeds.  The sharecroppers returned to him a portion of the crops in payment.

Besides being a planter and a landlord, Robert Carter III was a manufacturer.  He operated textile factories, salt works, smiths’ shops, iron works, grain mills, and bakeries to fill his own needs and those of his neighbors.  He owned ships which carried his supplies and those of other nearby planters on the Virginia rivers.  He was also something of a banker and lent credit to others.  At one time he owned over 500 slaves and employed many stewards, overseers, clerks, skilled craftsmen, and other workers.

Not all plantation owners owned so much as Robert Carter III did, but many Southerners of his station had a deep sense of obligation to society.  They were justices in county courts, served as sheriffs, colonels of militia (Carter was a colonel of militia), and acted as vestrymen and church wardens in their parishes.  Carter was in a real sense the protector, father, physician, and court of last resort for all people on the plantation.  At 23 he was a member of the Governor’s Council and spent a good part of each year attending the General Court in the capital at Williamsburg.

At home at Nomini Hall Carter read, practiced music, and took part in social life.  Among the musical instruments at Nomini Hall were the harpsichord, harmonica, guitar, violin, German flute, and an organ specially built in England and transported for him to Virginia. 

Fithian appreciated the refinement, culture, and benevolence of the ruling class that Carter represented.  But Fithian was critical of slavery.  Learning of the food allowance for slaves and hearing of harsh treatment of those considered to be difficult, he wrote of their owners, “Good God!  Are these Christians?”  Some overseers he called “bloody,” and he believed that black slaves from Africa were less economical than free white tenant farmers would be.

To note the graceful life of the upper class in the South is to look at only part of a large picture.  The colonial South had well defined social classes.  At the base of these were the slaves who provided the essential labor of the entire society.

BR> Unlike the New England Puritans, the southern aristocracy reflected the conservative outlook of the English upper class and the Anglican (or Established) Church.  While middle class Puritans came mainly for religious liberty, upper class Anglicans came primarily for the chance to gain large wealth.

The economic foundation of the South was laid in 1612 when John Rolfe successfully grew and processed tobacco.  This money-making crop was much more important from the point of view of the Southerners’ interests than rice and indigo.  But tobacco took a heavy drain of essential minerals from the soil and needed more and more growing land and more and more field labor.

While plantation owners provided the ingenuity and the initial capital, slaves did the essential hard work.  In between were English white indentured servants from the working class who paid for their passage by seven years of work and then, except for a few who left the South, became tenant farmers or small landowners or craftsmen. Thus the social class structure arose naturally out of existing conditions.  The pattern became fixed:  black slaves, white farm workers in various social categories, and a small top layer of wealthy plantation owners like Carter whose rule was buttressed by the government and by the established Anglican Church.

Education in the South had some things in common with education in the North, particularly a philanthropic concern for religious literacy, economic usefulness, and social welfare.  Apprenticeship training, going back for its inspiration to the English poor laws, was practiced in all the colonies.  In the South, apprenticeship opportunities were available for dependent white children, for orphan white children, and for some illegitimate mulatto  or mixed-blooded children.

Most slave children were brought up at home by illiterate parents and were quickly put to field work or other work they could perform.  Some planters did establish schoolhouses in abandoned tobacco fields and hired teachers.  A few Old Field Schools, as they were called, were for black slave children, but most Old Field Schools were for poorer white children.  Old Field School pupils learned little more than the ABC’s and Anglican catechism.

One philanthropic agency which provided organized education for religious purposes was the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, usually referred to simply as S.P.G.  This missionary arm of the Anglican Church had been founded in England in 1701 by Thomas Bray, Church of England clergymen, for mission education work in the British colonies.  But S.P.G. educational work in the American South was negligible.

Early attempts had been made to establish schools in Virginia using private donations.  The Virginia Company had hoped to establish Henrico College in 1619 as a missionary school to convert the Indians to Anglican Christianity, but the college soon failed.  An attempt by a clergyman, Patrick Copeland, to establish an East India Company school about the same time also failed.  Some individuals did establish private free schools, similar to northern grammar schools, where the three R’s, Latin, and religion were taught. 

Two outstanding examples of these relatively few private schools in Virginia included a school founded by planter Benjamin Symes in <

In 1659 Dr. Thomas Eaton gave several hundred acres, buildings, slaves, and livestock for another school.  The Symes and Eaton schools united in 1805 to form Hampton Academy, and in 1902 Hampton Academy became part of the Virginia public school system.

Basically, however, the southern aristocracy, like the British upper class, believed that education was a private, family matter.  In New England the Calvinistic Puritan desire for religious literacy led to government requirement and support, as in the Massachusetts school laws of 1642 and 1647, which aimed at universal elementary and secondary education.  

But in the South the tradition of education as a private family matter was strong.  Unlike the northern colonies, the southern colonial governments did not provide educational schemes for the common people.  For the southern plantation elites, mothers trained their children during the very early years, then private tutors like Philip Fithian were hired for the intermediate years, and a further finishing education was obtained either abroad in English or French university colleges or at William and Mary College in Williamsburg, Virginia.

Fithian’s position at the Carter house was one close to the family.  Those who lived in Nomini Hall besides the family, included Fithian, servants, a housekeeper, a clerk, a dancing master, and a nurse.

Some other plantation homes had fencing masters, tutors from abroad, and governesses from the continent hired chiefly for their knowledge of French and German languages.  The southern plantation youth were exposed to a wide and liberal curriculum, which included classical literature, foreign languages, philosophy, dancing, fencing, and such practical subjects as surveying and law.  The goal was not professional specialization but rather a gentlemanly education that aimed at character building. Southern plantation owners had some of the largest libraries in all the colonies.  One of Philip Fithian’s jobs was to catalog Colonel Carter’s library  of more than 1,000 volumes, containing many classics and books on manners, gardening, medicine and surgery, surveying, engineering, law,  commentaries on law, architecture, and a wide range of other cultural subjects.

Philip Vickers Fithian went to Virginia in late October 1773 with some fear and trepidation.  Ten months later, in late summer 1774, when he left Nomini Hall, he carried with him a deep affection for the Carter children and family.  He left to do further study to qualify as a Presbyterian minister.  Besides, he had a sweetheart in Princeton to whom he wrote often.

On December 7, 1774, before the Presbytery of Philadelphia, Fithian took and passed his examination for the ministry and was licensed to preach.  That winter he filled several vacant pulpits in western New Jersey.  In the summer of 1775 he went as Presbyterian missionary to pioneer settlements in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia and Pennsylvania.  Soon after he married Elizabeth Beatty of Princeton. At the outbreak of the American Revolution, Fithian enlisted as a chaplain in Heard’s brigade of New Jersey militia.  He was present at the battle of White Plains, New York.  After suffering severe exposure during the battle, he died near Fort Washington on October 8, 1776.  He was twenty-nine years and ten months old.

For a century and a quarter Philip Vickers Fithian’s manuscript journal and the letters he wrote to friends and relatives remained unpublished.  His brother Enoch had copied these in bound volumes from the loose and various-sized sheets on which they had been written.  These seven volumes in Enoch Fithian’s handwriting remained at the Princeton University Library until 1900, when they were published for the first time.  The last edition was published in 1945.

The value of Philip Fithian’s journal and letters lies in their graphic and intimate portrait of Virginia plantation life, culture, and education.  For a small proportion of the children of moderate-to-large plantation owners, the South offered education by tutors like Fithian that was genteel, cultured, and refined.

For the children of white tradesmen and small land owners there were some private schools.  For white indentured servants and sharecroppers there were relatively few Old Field Schools.  Black slave children received practically no schooling.   

Northern education spread faster among a growing and rising middle class.  Southern education, favoring as it did a proportionately smaller plantation aristocracy, had less educational impact on a smaller middle class, had little effect on poor whites, and no effect on the black slave majority. 

References 

Adapted from Parker, Franklin, “A Princeton Tutor on a Virginia Plantation,” Tradition, III, No. 3 (December 1960), pp. 41-47.

END OF MANUSCRIPT.  Corrections, comments to: bfparker@frontiernet.net 

About the Parkers:  24 of their book titles  are listed in:
http://www.library.vanderbilt.edu/peabody/about/alum6.html#P
For writings by the Parkers in blogs, enter    bfparker   in      google.com     or in any other search engine.

<b>”USA As World’s Policeman.”  Revised Aug. 3, 2006.  First appeared as: “How U.S. Foreign Policy Became Imperial Since the 1898 Spanish American War,” A Dialogue by Franklin Parker and Betty J. Parker on Warren Zimmermann’s <i>First Great Triumph: How Five Americans Made Their Country a World Power</i>. N.Y.:  Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002, 562 pp., and other works.   Given originally at Book Review Group, Uplands Retirement Village, Pleasant Hill, TN, June 19, 2006.  E-mail: bfparker@frontiernet.net

<BR><BR>

<u>Summary</u>

<BR><BR>We chose to focus on Warren Zimmermann’s <i>The First Great Triumph:  How Five Americans Made Their Country a World Power</i>, 2002, plus related works, because: we were concerned, like all Americans, about why 9,11-200l happened, why we are in Iraq, whyMuslim extremists hate us, why many believe that the U.S. and its current president are imperialistic.

<BR><BR>Zimmermann traces U.S. foreign policy back to the 1898 Spanish American War.  Until then U.S. energies went into continental expansion, Atlantic to the Pacific.  With the frontier gone, needing to sell our surplus industrial/agricultural products abroad, we modernized our Navy,  provoked and defeated a weakened Spain, acquired Spain’s strategic Caribbean and Pacific bases, and planned a Panama Canal (opened in 1914)–our first steps toward becoming a world economic and military power.

<BR><BR>In a three-month imperial thrust—late April to July 1898–we destroyed the Spanish fleet, acquired overseas naval bases in and responsibility for Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, Guam, Wake Island, Hawaii, Samoa, others.  The resulting expansionist U.S. foreign policy led a willing winning coalition  of democracies through WW I and II, Cold War, Gulf War.  Then came 9-11-2002, the 2003 Iraq War, and serious U.S. difficulties.

 

<BR><BR>The <u>Five Americans [Who] Made Their Country a World Power</u> were:  

<BR><BR>1-U.S. Navy Capt. <u>Alfred Thayer Mahan</u> whose book, <i>The Influence of Sea Power Upon History</i>…(1890), was “the most influential work on naval strategy ever written.”  In it he urged more, larger, better gunned, steam-driven, steel hull ships for oceanic offense; strategic refueling and refitting stations in the Caribbean and Pacific; and quick Atlantic to Pacific passage through a central American canal. 

<BR><BR>2-<u>Theodore Roosevelt</u> who, as Assistant Secretary of the U.S. Navy,  U.S. Vice President, &U.S. President implemented Capt. Mahan’s naval ideas and largely provoked the 1898 Spanish American War in which he was the hero of the Battle of San Juan Hill, Cuba.

<BR><BR>3-Influential expansionist-minded Republican Sen. <u>Henry Cabot Lodge</u>, over 30 years  on the U.S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee, who not only guided Roosevelt’s career choices to the presidency but won by 2 votes the Senate’s approval of the Treaty of Paris (1900) by which defeated Spain ceded to the U.S. the Philippines, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Guam.

<BR><BR>4-As U.S. ambassador in London and later U.S. Secretary of State, <u>John Hay</u>got Britain to back the U.S. in the Spanish American War and affirm U.S. control of Spain’s Caribbean and Pacific territories.

<BR><BR>5-Successful N.Y. lawyer <u>Elihu Root</u> as U.S. Secretary of War replaced Army rule of newly won territories with civil administrators good at nation building and implementing self rule.

<BR><BR><u>End of Summary</u>.  Dialog Follows:

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>:  We chose to focus on Warren Zimmermann’s <i>The First Great Triumph:  How Five Americans Made Their Country a World Power</i>, plussupporting references.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>:  Why this particular Warren Zimmermann book?

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Because he shows that when the dynamism of U.S. westward expansion (i.e., our “Manifest Destiny”) reached the Pacific, it was soon transformed into an overseas expansionist, aggressive, imperial U.S. foreignpolicy.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: Having settled the Pacific coast, with nowhere else to go, overproduction of farm and factory products impelled us to find new markets and new resources abroad.  The end of the frontier drove us to trade abroad, to build a stronger navy, to seek colonies and world power status.

 <BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: With the frontier gone, the drive for trade and ascendancy abroad pushed us into the 1898 Spanish American War.  That war led to our becoming a world power.  That’s the meaning of Zimmermann’s book title.  The Spanish American War was our <i>First Great Triumph</i>, a first step toward world hegemony based on  an increasingly aggressive imperial U.S. foreign policy.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: Zimmermann also implies, repeat implies, why an aggressive U.S. imperialism led to the 9-11-2001 terrorist attacks, the 2003 Iraq war, U.S. unilateral military strikes; why Muslim extremists hate us; whywe have lost world wide respect and are now in crisis.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Warren Zimmerman, born 1935, died 2004, was a Yale graduate, a Fulbright scholar at Cambridge University, England, and a U.S. diplomat for 33 years.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>:He was U.S. ambassador to various countries, including Yugoslavia.  He then taught international diplomacy at Columbia University and  Johns Hopkins University.  His book, First Great Triumph, won several prizes.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Zimmermann’s title, The First Great Triumph, is from a letter Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919) wrote to his sister Corinne, June 15, 1898, on his way to fight in Cuba:  “[This] is a great historical expedition,…I thrill to feel that I am part of it….   If we…succeed…and we shall succeed, we have scored <u>the first great triumph</u> in what will be a world movement.”1

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: Theodore Roosevelt is the first of Zimmermann’s…<i>Five Americans [Who] Made Their Country a World Power</i>.  Roosevelt is presented asa rising dynamic Republican politician, enthusiastic for U.S. expansion abroad and determined to remake the U.S. from a third rate country to a world power.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Theodore Roosevelt and other expansionists helped provoke the Spanish American War, which made the U.S. for the first time a colonial power, controlling Cuba, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam, Wake Island, Hawaii, Samoa.  More later about Roosevelt.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: The U.S. was expansionist-minded from its beginnings.  Examples: The American Revolution was fought to win independence and to acquire all North American land we could get.  We tried to take Canada several times but did not succeed.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: George Washington referred to the U.S. as a “new empire,” a “rising empire.”  He said in 1786: “there will assuredly come a day when this country will have some weight in the scale of Empires.”2

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: Pres. Thomas Jefferson bought the Louisiana Purchase from France, 1803.  He then sent Lewis and Clark to explore the Pacific Northwest.  Why?  So Americans could settle and develop its resources.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: We bought Florida from Spain (1819) under Pres. James Monroe.  We also formulated the Monroe Doctrine (1823), which declared the Western Hemisphere to be a U.S. sphere of influence closed to European exploitation.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: Pres. James K. Polk (1795-1849) wanted the U.S. northwest boundary with Canada set at “54-40 or Fight.”  But Britain was too strong to tackle.  The U.S. had to settle on the 49th parallel as the Canadian boundary.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: By urging the Mexican War (1846-48), Pres. James K. Polk added 1.2 million square miles to the U.S.  

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: In 1853 Pres. Millard Fillmore (1800-74) sent Commodore Matthew C. Perry (1794-1858) to open trade with Japan, a clear case of gunboat diplomacy.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Pres. Abraham Lincoln suspended <i>habeas corpus</i> in the Civil War and jailed subversives without trial, both unconstitutional acts.  The U.S. was imperial in its discrimination against African Americans, native Americans, Chinese, and others.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: By 1890, after Civil War and Reconstruction, a new generation with boundless energy built roads, canals, railroads, the telegraph, the Atlantic Cable; settled the west; created factories, industries, towns, cities.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Immigrant labor poured in.  Business boomed.  Fortunes were made.  U.S. “Manifest Destiny,” which took us to the Pacific, seemed unstoppable.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: The U.S., by 1890, overproduced farm and factory products.  With the U.S. frontier market reduced, with European countries walled off by protective high tariffs, U.S. farmers and manufacturers were pushed economically to find foreign markets and raw materials in less developed areas.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: A major shift in the center of U.S. population was noted in the 1890 Census by Wisconsin History Professor Frederick Jackson Turner.  He said in his famous 1893 paper, “The Frontier in American History”: the American frontier is gone, but frontier characteristics remain–rugged individualism, restless movement, upward striving for business success, profits, and dominance.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: In 1896, two years before the Spanish American War, Prof. Turner said prophetically:  [The frontier] “energies of expansion will…[continue in] demands for a vigorous foreign policy, for an inter-oceanic canal, for a revival of our power upon the seas, and for the extension of American influence to outlying islands and adjoining countries….”3

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Prof. Turner and other expansionists rightly saw that increased overseas trade required stronger naval protection.  A stronger U.S. navy needed strategic overseas refueling and refitting bases.  Military power to protect commercial expansion abroad then meant naval power.  Enhanced world power then meant colonies.  We needed colonies.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: To Prof. Turner’s insight that U.S. rugged individualism would lead to overseas expansion was added Charles Darwin’s (1809-82) evolution theory (1859).  U.S. expansionists embracedDarwinian evolution.  They saw struggle for survival as natural, Anglo Saxon society as superior, the U.S. as the fittest nation destined for world leadership.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Second of Zimmermann’s <i>Five Americans [Who] Made Their Country a World Power</i>,” Alfred Thayer Mahan (1840-1914), was a U. S. naval officer and historian.  Mahan’s 1890 book on the importance of sea power influenced naval strategists world-wide.  He was the father of the modern U.S. Navy.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: Mahan, a U.S. Naval Academy graduate (1859), served on antiquated U.S. Civil War warships.  He later irritated navy brass by writing articles urging U.S. Navy improvements.  Superiors tried to muzzle Mahan.  One called Mahan derisively “a pen and ink sailor.”

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Mahan’s model for a great navy was the British Navy.  Mahan wanted more, larger, better gunned, steam-driven, steel hull ships.  He wanted better selected, brighter, well trained, highly skilled naval personnel.  Instead of small ships for coastal defensehe wanted large battleships for oceanic offense.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>:  :  The U.S. Navy, Mahan wrote, must be mobile, flexible, and able to pass quickly from the Atlantic to the Pacific through a central American canal.  The U.S. must also have a network of strategically located refueling and refitting stations with deep ports.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: A naval officer under whom Mahan once served established at Newport, R.I., the world’s first Naval War College.  Mahan eagerly accepted a teaching post there in 1885.  He steeped himself in historical studies and became the Naval War College’s acting head and later president.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: Needing  a lecturer on the naval history of the War of 1812, Mahan found that Theodore Roosevelt had published in 1882, at age 24, an authoritative book on that subject.  In his 1887 Naval War College lectures, Roosevelt used the word “war” 62 times.  Mahan and Roosevelt bonded, reinforced each other,  with Mahan as Roosevelt’s strategic advisor.   Roosevelt as Assistant Secretary of the Navy and as U.S. President implemented Mahan’s ideas.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Mahan’s book, <i>The Influence of Sea Power Upon History 1660-1783</i> (1890), along with his later books, won rave reviews by Roosevelt and others. Mahan’s books became required reading in navy departments worldwide. 

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: Brief quotes about Mahan’s importance:  “<i>The Influence of Sea Power</i>…was Mahan’s greatest achievement and probably the most influential work on naval strategy ever written.”4  …”<i>The Influence of Sea Power</i> was a work of  breathtaking range:  a history of diplomatic and military strategy,  a survey of land as well as sea combat.”5  …”[Mahan's book] shaped the imperial policies of Germany and Japan….”6  

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Mahan’s aggressive naval strategy coincided with the insatiable drive for increased U.S. trade abroad. 

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: Said Ohio Governor William McKinley, before his presidency:  “We want a foreign market for our surplus products.”7  

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Said Indiana Senator Albert J. Beveridge (1862-1927), a year before the Spanish American War:  “American factories are making more than the American people can use; American soil is producing more than they can consume.  Fate has written our policy for us; the trade of the world must and shall be ours.”8

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: Said expansionist Massachusetts Republican Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, third of Zimmermann’s …<i>Five Americans[Who] Made Their Country a World Power</i>:  “In the interests of our commerce…we should build the [Central American] canal, and for the protection of that canal…we should control [Hawaii]…, Samoa, [and] Cuba….  [Why,] the great nations are rapidly absorbing for their future expansion and their present defense all the waste places of the earth….”9

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Senator Henry Cabot Lodge (1850-1924), son of two patrician Boston families, heir to a shipping fortune, was a Harvard graduate, a Harvard history professor.  Roosevelt was his student.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: Henry Cabot Lodge was a U.S. congressman, then as U.S. senator and long-time chairman, of the Foreign Relations Committee, he ruled the U.S. Senate with an iron hand.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Eight years older and more jingoistic than Roosevelt, Lodge guided Roosevelt’s political career right up to the White House. 

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: During William McKinley’s presidency (1897-1901), Lodge, supreme political tactician; Roosevelt, diehard political expansionist; and Mahan, promoter of aggressive naval power—were determined to advance U.S. to world power status.  They sparked the Spanish American War.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Seeking a pretext for war, hawkish Theodore Roosevelt wrote to a friend in 1897, a year before the Spanish American War:  “In strict confidence…I should welcome almost any war, for I think this country needs  one.”10

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: Five years before the Spanish American War (1893), U.S. owners of Hawaiian sugar plantations, fearing the Hawaiian queen’s (Queen Liliuokalani, 1838-1917) liberal reforms and expecting U.S. annexation, got the U.S. Navy to help dethrone the queen.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: But newly elected anti-expansionist U.S. Pres. Grover Cleveland (1837-1908) vetoed annexation. 

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: In Howard Kinzer’s new book, 2006, title: <i>Overthrow</i>, he tells how Hawaii was the first territory whose regime the U.S. tried to destabilize.  Why?   So that we could annex Hawaii, take it over.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Hawaii, , according to Kinzer, was the first of 14 instances in 110 years when the U.S. militarily or by subversion forced regime changes to assure compliance with U.S. interests. 11

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: Spain in 1898 was weakened by years of guerrilla-led uprisings in Cuba under Jose Martí (1853-95) and in the Philippines under Emilio Aguinaldo (1869-1964).

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Americans, sympathetic with oppressed Cubans, were angry at Spain’s brutality and resulting deaths.  That anger was fanned by sensational U.S. press accounts of Spanish atrocities.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: Pres. McKinley, having seen suffering as a Civil War officer, hoped to avoidwar.  But a riot in Havana on January 12, 1898, threatened Americans living there.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>:Pres. McKinley sent the battleship <i>Maine</i> to Cuba as a show of force.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>:On Feb. 15, 1898, an explosion sank the <i>Maine</i> in Havana Bay, killing 268 U.S. sailors.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: A U.S. Navy investigation in March reported that a mine explosion outside the hull sank the <i>Maine</i>.  The U.S. jingo press headlined, without proof, that Spanish agents deliberately sunk the <i>Maine</i>.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: Press propaganda and public pressure pushed Pres. McKinley to ask Congress to declare war.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: After the U.S. Navy blockaded Cuban ports, Spain on April 24, 1898, and the U.S. the next day declared war.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: Interjection: 78 years later, in 1976, a re-sifting of the evidence showed that the <i>Maine</i> explosion was caused by spontaneous combustion of coal dust—an accident.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Deliberate or accidental, the <i>Maine</i> explosion was a pretext.  The real U.S. motives for the war were: to acquire more territory for more trade, more territory for refueling bases, to assure the U.S. greater status in the world, to protect the proposed Panama Canal, and—for the first time–to restore human rights to oppressed Cubans.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: Cuba was the initial focus.  The Philippine Islands was an afterthought.  With the Navy Secretary away, Assistant Navy Secretary Roosevelt, on Mahan’s advice, sent Commodore George Dewey’s (1837-1917) Asiatic fleet to Hong Kong before war was declared.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Roosevelt instructed Dewey: when war is declared, rush to Manila and attack the Spanish fleet.  Dewey’s fleet reached Manila Bay late April 30.  The next day, May 1, in a 7-hour battle Dewey destroyed the Spanish ships.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: In Cuba a U.S. Navy squadron blockaded the remaining Spanish fleet.  U.S. troops and volunteers, including Roosevelt’s Rough Riders, reached Cuba.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Lt. Col. Theodore Roosevelt, with spare glasses sewn into his new Brooks Brothers uniform, led the fight up San Juan Hill.  On July 3, in a 4-hour sea battle the U.S. destroyed the Spanish fleet.  A month later (Aug. 4, 1898) we took Puerto Rico.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: Total U.S. casualties: 3,289 dead; of these 332 died in battle, the rest from malaria, dysentery, and other diseases.  Spanish casualties: about 60,000 dead, 10% in battle, 90% from malaria, dysentery, and other diseases.12&13

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: After the war, in the Treaty of Paris (Dec. 10, 1898), Spain ceded to the U.S. the Philippines, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Guam.  In the Pacific we annexed Wake Island (July 4, 1898) and Hawaii (July 7, 1898).  We acquired Midway Island earlier when we bought Alaska (1867).

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: Opponents, uneasy about expansion abroad, argued against making the U.S. a colonialpower.  They opposed our taking distant lands with brown and yellow people they thought incapable of assimilation.  Acquiring colonies, opponents said, went against U.S. isolationism, against the Monroe Doctrine, against U.S. principles of self-government. 

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: By two votes Senator Henry Cabot Lodge barely won Senate approval of the Treaty of Paris, Feb. 6, 1900.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: As in Iraq in 2003, the U.S. rushed into the Spanish American War without a post war plan.  To counter inevitable criticism, indecision, and mistakes, we needed backing from the world’s then most powerful country, Britain.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: To get British backing, Pres. McKinley chose a rare diplomat, John Hay (1838-1905) as ambassador to Britain (1897-98), fourth of Zimmermann’s …<i>Five Americans [Who] Made Their Country a World Power</i>.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: John Hay, after graduating from Brown University, Providence, R.I., joined his uncle’s law firm.  Where?  In Springfield, IL., next door to lawyer-politician Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865).

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Lincoln’s 1860 presidential campaign manager John Nicolay (1832-1901) had been John Hay’s classmate.  Newly elected Pres. Lincoln took both Johns, John Nicolay and John Hay, to Washington, D.C., as his two secretaries.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: There, John Hay, in 1861 at the tender age of 23, found himself living in the White House.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: John Hay read Pres. Lincoln’s mail, drafted replies, briefed Lincoln on press items, greeted visitors, weeded out job-seekers, and played with Lincoln’s sons Willie and Tad.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: He swapped funny stories with Lincoln and was at the assassinated Lincoln’s deathbed.   

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: John Hay’s Lincoln connection, political skills, literary talent, wit, charm, and easy manner led him to high office. 

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: Appointed foreign service officer (1865-70), John Hay served in Paris, Vienna, Madrid.  He then was <i>New York Tribune</i> editorial writer (1870-74).  He met and married Clara Stone (Feb. 4, 1874), and moved to her hometown, Cleveland, OH, where investment opportunities made John Hay a wealthy man.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Ohio political connections led to John Hay’s appointment as assistant secretary of state (1879-81) under Ohio-born Pres. Rutherford B. Hayes (1822-93).

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: Besides writing a best selling novel, Hay wrote with John Nicolay the historically important <i>Abraham Lincoln: A History</i>, 10 volumes (New York: Century, 1890).

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Pres. McKinley, a good judge of talent, knew that John Hay as U.S. ambassador to Britain (1897-98) could help win Britain’s support for the Spanish American War and the territories acquired.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: John Hay smoothed past U.S.-British angers over the American Revolution, the War of 1812, and two serious Civil War differences.  The first involved the British ship Trent, in which the U.S. was in the wrong.  On Nov. 8, 1861, a U.S. warship captain illegally stopped the Trent and forcibly removed and imprisoned four Confederates seeking arms and aid abroad.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Britain’s reaction to this illegal U.S. search and seizure was to send 5,000 troops to Canada, in case a U.S.-British war erupted.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>:   Pres. Lincoln eased the crisis, told his cabinet: one war at a time, gentlemen.  He disavowed the illegal seizure, released the Confederates (Dec. 1861), thus avoided a U.S.-British war right in the middle of the U.S. Civil War.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: A second irritant was the <i>Maine</i>Claims controversy. Britain was in the wrong.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: Without a navy, Confederate agents secretly bought, with British connivance, British made ships, and outfitted them with guns as Confederate war raiders.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: These raiders (the first was named <i>Alabama</i>a) cost many Union lives and much treasure.  A Geneva international court made Britain pay the U.S. in 1871-72 a $15.5 million indemnity.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: As U.S. ambassador in London and then as U.S. secretary of state, John Hay gained British backing for U.S. rule of Spain’s territories.  He also negotiated an “Open Door” policy (March 20, 1899) allowing U.S. trade in China without paying a high tariff.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Hay also ended an 1850 treaty (Clayton-Bulwer Treaty) for joint U.S.-British control of any future central American canal.  Instead, Hay’s new 1901 treaty (Hay-Pauncefote Treaty) gave the U.S. exclusive control of the proposed canal..

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: Interjection: in 1977, the U.S. Congress voted to return the Panama Canal to Panama.  In the U.S. Senate debate over return, California’s Senator S.I. Hayakawa said facetiously to opponents of return:  “We stole [the Panama Canal] fair and square.”

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: The Anglo-American alliance John Hay forged, which still exists, tipped the balance toward our late but crucial entrance into World Wars I and II.  The alliance, which helped us win the Cold War and the 1991 Gulf War, still exists in the current Iraq War.  U.S. patriots say that the U.S.-British alliance helped keep the free world free.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: Author Warren Zimmermann described John Hay this way: “As a Secretary of State [he] knew both the world and his own country.  He presided over a period of [U.S.] expansion with modesty, civility, and a self-deprecating humor….”15

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: The U.S. Army initially administered Cuba, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico.  But Pres. McKinley wanted to replace Army rule with civilian administrators.  He sought a Secretary of War who would supervise civil administrators good at nation building, good at leading colonial people toward self rule.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: John Hay recommended Elihu Root (1845-1937), fifth of Zimmermann’s <i>Five Americans [Who] Made Their Country a World Power</i>.  Elihu Root proved ideal at nation-building and at finding legal solutions to difficult international problems.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: McKinley said to Root by phone: I want you to be Secretary of War.  Root replied:  Mr. President, I don’t know anything about war or the Army.  I have no experience with government.  McKinley said: You’re a smart lawyer and you will be the first person in U.S. history charged with running colonies.  I want a pragmatic problem solver, a lawyer like you.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: Elihu Root served Presidents McKinley and Roosevelt as Secretary of War(1899-1904).  He then succeeded John Hay as Secretary of State under Theodore Roosevelt (1905-09).  He was also a one-term U.S. senator.  Root was our then leading international lawyer. 

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Born in Clinton, New York, home of Hamilton College, Elihu Root graduated from Hamilton College (1864) and from New York University Law School (1867).  In his twenties Root was a highly regarded corporation lawyer, by his thirties his law practice had made him rich, and in his forties one of most sought–after trial lawyers in the country.16

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: William Howard Taft (1857-1930), before he became U.S. president, was our first civil administrator to the Philippines.  Here is how Elihu Root instructed William Howard Taft:  “…the government… you are establishing is [not] designed for our satisfaction…but for the happiness, peace, and prosperity of the people of the Philippine Islands, and the measures [you] adopt… should…conform to their customs, their habits,…their prejudices.”18

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Elihu Root served U.S. interests and also helped make Cuba conditionally independent (May 20, 1902).  In Puerto Rico he preserved Spanish civil law, used locally generated revenues locally, and obtained large U.S. grants for schools.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: After Filipino nationalists fought the U.S. takeover bitterly for three years (with atrocities on both sides), Root and Taft began land reform.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: They built roads and schools, helped the Philippines attain the highest literacy rate in Asia and install the first elected legislature in Asia.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: Elihu Root founded two still active fact finding think tanks: 1-the Council on Foreign Relations and 2-the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.  Root inspired the Central American Court of Justice. Root’s efforts led to the International Court of Justice in the Hague (1945).

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>:Elihu Root, who served on many international committees and courts, won the Nobel Peace Prize (1912) for tirelessly establishing compulsory international arbitration.19 &20  Root died in 1937 at age 92.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: Young, hawkish Theodore Roosevelt gave us a powerful navy and he stiffened a wavering Pres. McKinley.  Roosevelt also won the Nobel Peace Prize earlier in 1905 for helping to end the Russo-Japanese War.  Roosevelt died of heart failure in 1919 at age 61.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Alfred Thayer Mahan, the once maligned “pen and ink” sailor, was vindicated as the grand naval strategist.  He was later showered with honorary degrees in England and the U.S.   Mahan died in 1914, at the beginning of World War I, when air power began to supplement sea power.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: John Hay, bright, witty, noted writer, political administrator, died at age 67 in 1905, having forged a lasting U.S.-British alliance. John Hay’s diplomacy and Elihu Root’s governance were essential to post Spanish American War stability and eventual self rule.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Henry Cabot Lodge, supreme Republican expansionist senator, died in 1924.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: The U.S., as ruthless as any European power in grabbing colonies, did better as a colonial administrator.  Cuba became independent in 1902 as stated, although under conditions that assured U.S. best interests.  Philippine independence was delayed until 1946, after World War II.  Hawaii became the 50th U.S. state (Aug. 21, 1959).  Most Puerto Ricans are still divided over possible U.S. statehood.  They want to remain a commonwealth because as such they pay no U.S. income tax.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: The U.S. profited, but it also built roads, schools, improved health, and advanced the economies of its former colonies.21  <u>The bee fertilized the flowers it robbed</u>.  Frank, restate Zimmermann’s main themes.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: To recap:  After post-Civil War U.S. internal expansion reached the Pacific, that expansionist thrust shifted overseas toward wider world trade.  To lead in world trade meant we had to reach for world power.  To be a world power required naval power and strategic bases.  Spain, weak, oppressive, with key bases, was ripe for plucking.  We had the motive, drive, navy, and the crucial five Americans in key positions who made the U.S. a world power.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Two dates show U.S. transition from a third rate country to world power status.   1891, 7 years before the Spanish American War, Capt. Mahan estimated that the U.S. Navy was too weak to defeat the navy of Chile.  Mid-1907, 16 years later, Pres. Theodore Roosevelt, about to leave office, sent the Great White Fleet, 16 first class U.S. warships, around the world, with stops at major world ports.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: This Great White Fleet arrived at Hampton Roads, Va., Feb. 24, 1909, greeted by Pres. Roosevelt, U.S. dignitaries, navy bands, and resounding cheers. In this, his last act as president, Roosevelt showed the world that the U.S. was a firstclass nation with a first class navy, and had arrived on the world stage.22

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Zimmermann believed that U.S. imperialism lasted nearly 100 years, 1898 to the end of the Cold War, 1991.  He believed that since 1991 we have been in transition to a new age, as yet unformed and undefined. 

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>:  What new age?  Here is the title of Johns Hopkins foreign policy Professor Michael Mandelbaum’s new 2006 book: <i>The Case for Goliath: How America Acts as the World’s Governmentin the 21st Century</i>. 

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>:   If a world policeman is inevitable,wrote Michael Mandelbaum, then most countries prefer that policeman to be the U.S.  Why?  Because—so far– U.S. world leadership has been more helpful than harmful; more to be trusted than Russia or Germany or France or most other countries.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: U.S. expansionists say that, by leading a willing winning coalition of democracies, the U.S.  kept the free world free in defeating imperial Germany in World War I, Hitler’s Nazism in World War II, USSR Communism in the Cold War (1945-1991), and in defeating Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in the Gulf War.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Recent changes have made the U.S. as world policeman less benign, more aggressively fearsome.  One change is skyrocketing political campaign costs.  Big money given by big corporations forces U.S. presidents and Congress to favor corporate interests over humane concerns at home and abroad.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: Another related change: the military-industrial complex which Pres. Eisenhower warned against 50 years ago.  It now has awesome power.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>:  Corporate lobbyists and their money contributions, which influence policy at home and abroad, favor corporate interests such as weapon sales, control over oil and other resources.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: Also, the growing divide at home between U.S. rich and poor further strengthens U.S. corporate-dominated foreign policy.  The rich-poor divide is accelerated by deliberate under funding by conservatives of federal socio-economic programs for the poorest Americans.

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Tax breaks for the rich and reduced funding for the poor seemed to be the George W. Bush administration’s main objective initially.  Then came the 9-11-2001 terrorist attacks.  That catastrophe transformed President Bush, gave him a messianic mission.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>:  He saw his future fame as David slaying terrorist Goliaths.  With Congress, the courts, and the religious right in his pocket, his administration authorized unilateral military strikes, overrode checks and balances, invaded Iraq.  Can we imposedemocracy in Iraq or elsewhere?

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: Mounting disenchantment (mid-2006) with the costly ongoing Iraq War, deaths, torture, and loss of U.S. prestige abroad have reduced the president’s approval rating to the low 30s.  Did Warren Zimmermann, who died in 2004, say anything specifically about Iraq?

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>:  Yes.  He said, prophetically, June 14, 2002, nine months beforethe U.S. invaded Iraq:  “…there is more…danger to us by a military invasion of Iraq than if we dealt with [Saddam Hussein] in some other way….  [An invasion of Iraq will]…generate more terrorism in the Middle East….  [E]ven if we win…[and]…install the government of our choice, we will have to run [Iraq] for a long time because of…unsettled ethnic problems there.  So Iraq becomes…an American protectorate…that will…generate among young [Muslims] everywhere greater anti-Americanism and terrorism.”23

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: We chose Warren Zimmermann’s book wanting to understand why the U.S. is in crisis.  We close with thoughts from two other historians.  Historian Howard Zinn’s response in April 2006 to the question: why were so many Americans so easily and so long misled by our current leaders?  Howard Zinn’s answer:  we are unable to think outside the boundaries of nationalism.  “We are penned in by the arrogant idea that this country is the center of the universe, exceptionally virtuous, admirable, superior.”

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: Historian Zinn also explained that we teach politicized U.S. history.  We teach that Pres. Polk went to war against Mexico because Mexicans shed American blood on American soil.  Truth: we fought Mexico because Pres. Polk and the slave owning aristocracy wanted half of Mexico as U.S. slave states.  We teach that Pres. McKinley invaded Cuba and the Philippines to free them from Spanish brutality.  Truth:  We invaded Cuba and the Philippines to benefit U.S. business and to gain strategic military locations.24

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>: : How will history judge this administration?  Highly regarded presidential historian Sean Wilentz reported a 2004 survey of 415 historians, 81% of whom voted our current administration a failure; and 12% voted our current president the worst U.S. president.  Wilentz added that if that survey were done today, a higher proportion of historians would vote him our worst president.26

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>:  We have created a generation of Middle Eastern Muslims who fear and hate us.  Betty, how do we get out of our present crisis?

<BR><BR><u>Betty</u>:  Surely we must elect wise leaders, renew international coalitions, use arbitration, end the Iraq war fairly, assure freedom at home, restore good will abroad.

<BR><BR><u>Frank</u>: Pray U.S. voters do just that.  Well, thank you, audience, for your attention. 

<BR><BR><u>References for Quotations</u>

<BR>1. Zimmermann, Warren. <i>First Great Triumph:  How Five Americans Made Their Country a World Power</i>.  N.Y.:  Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002, p.275.

<BR>2. Ibid., p. 6.         3. Ibid, p. 24.           4.Ibid. p. 94.      5. Ibid.

<BR>6. Uhlig, Jr., Frank.  “The Great White Fleet,” <i>American Heritage</i>, Vol. XV, No. 2 (Feb. 1964), pp. 30-43.

<BR>7. Zinn, Howard. <i>A People’s History of the United States 1492-Present</i>.  N.Y.:  Perennial Classics, 1999, p. 299.

<BR>8. Ibid.       9. Ibid.       10. Ibid p.297.

<BR>11. Kinzer, Howard. <i>Overthrow: America’s Century of Regime Change from Hawaii to Iraq</i>.  NY: Times, 2006.

<BR>12. Http://www.spanamwar.com/casualties.htm

<BR>13. http://www.cwc.lsu.edu/cwc/other/stats/warcost.htm

<BR>14. Zimmermann, <i>First Great Triumph</i>, p. 419.

<BR>15. Ibid., p. 455.

<BR>16. Zimmermann, Warren.  Speech, April 9, 2003, Council on Ethics and International Affairs.

<BR>17. Zimmermann, <i>First Great Triumph</i>, p. 123.

<BR>18. Ibid.       19 and 20. Ibid., pp. 487-488.

<BR>21. Zimmermann, Warren.  “Jingoes, Goo-Goos, and  the Rise of America’s Empire, <i>Wilson Quarterl</i>y, Vol. 22, No.2 (Spring 1998), pp. 42-65.

<BR>22. Uhlig, op cit.

<BR>23. Zimmermann, <i>First Great Triumph</i>, p. 503.

<BR>24. Zinn, Howard. http://itzie83.blogspot.com/2006/04/hegemonic-nationalism.html.

<BR>25. Wilentz, Sean. <i>Rolling Stone</i> (April 21, 2006):  http://www.truthout.org/docs_2006/042006J.shtml

<BR><BR><u>Used for Background</u>

<BR>”Admiral Mahan, Naval Critic, Dies,” <i>New York Times</i>, December 2, 1914, http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0927.html

<BR>Avram, Wes., Ed. <i>Anxious About Empire; Theological Essays on the New Global Realities</i>.  Grand Rapids, MI, 2004.  (13 religious leaders criticize the morality of the “Bush Doctrine”). Braun, Theodore A. <i>Perspectives on Cuba and Its People</i>.  N.Y.: Friendship Press, National Council of Churches, 1999.

<BR>Byrd, Robert C. <i>Losing America: Confronting a Reckless and Arrogant Presidency</i>.  N.Y.: W.W. Norton, 2004.

<BR>Morris, Richard B., Ed. <i>Encyclopedia of American History</i>.  N.Y.: Harper  & Brothers, 1953. 

<br><br>END of Manuscript.  Comments, corrections to bfparker@frontiernet.net

<br><br>Addendum: 24 of Franklin and Betty J. Parker’s book titles  are listed in:

http://www.library.vanderbilt.edu/peabody/about/alum6.html#P

<br><br>For their writings in blog form, enter    bfparker   in google.com  or in any other searchengine.)</b>